COUNSELING CENTER

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND

COLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND

Differences in Leadership and Co-Curricular Perception Among

Male and Female Asian Pacific American College Students

William M. Liu and William E. Sedlacek

Research Report # 13-95

This study was sponsored by the Counseling Center, University of Maryland, College Park. Computer time was provided by the Computer Science Center, University of Maryland, College Park.

COUNSELING CENTER

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND

COLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND

DIFFERENCES IN LEADERSHIP AND CO-CURRICULAR PERCEPTION AMONG MALE

AND FEMALE ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN COLLEGE STUDENTS

William M. Liu and William E. Sedlacek

Research Report # 13-95

Summary

The University New Student Census (UNSC) was administered to a representative sample of 376 Asian Pacific American incoming freshmen students (59% male and 41% female) at a large east coast university.

Analyses examined gender differences on perceptions about college and expectations about their experience. Results showed that males tended to be more inclined than females to go to and finish college in order to get a better job or go to graduate school. Additionally, the males believed that racism and crime were the most important social issues to solve. In terms of free time activity, males were more likely to be with their peers and participate in sports and athletic activities than females. Additionally, males felt that intramural athletic activities and special interest groups were co-curricular activities of the most interest. Among females, graduate school preparation and obtaining a better job were reasons cited for going to college and graduation. Women also felt that crime and violence and racism were the most important social issues to resolve. Finally, women were likely than men to be with their peers during free time or reading, and found special interest groups and volunteer activities co-curricularly of most interest.

Results also showed a significant difference in (a) skills to be a leader and volunteerism, with women more likely to endorse leadership and volunteer activities than men; (b) difference in intramural sport and religious activities involvement, with men more likely to be involved in intramural activities but not in religious activities than women; (c) difference in student demonstrations, with women believing that it was more of a waste of time than men; (d) difference in belief that there should be a race relations course, with women believing that there should be one more than men; and a difference in comfort working in a group with men more comfortable than women.

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The United States is experiencing a rapid demographic change in terms of racial and ethnic diversification (Hodgkinson, 1992). Asian Pacific Americans (APA) are one of the fastest growing racial groups (Chan, 1991; Chew & Ogi, 1987; Kohatsu & Sedlacek, 1990; Maynard, 1980; Nakanishi & Hirano-Nakanishi, 1983; Takaki, 1989), and currently are estimated to be about three percent (8.8 million) of the total U.S. population (Census Bureau, 1995). Ong and Hee (1993) suggested that by the year 2020, the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. will see a 50% increase in foreign born Asians from 1.1 to 3.4 million. Census Bureau (1995) statistics from the 1990 Census show that APA high school graduation rates range from 31 % among Hmong to 88% among Japanese Americans. Additionally, APA males and females were one to one and a half times more likely to have a bachelors degree (46 and 37 percent respectively; Census Bureau, 1995) when compared to non-Hispanic white males and females (28 and 21 percent, respectively; Census Bureau, 1995). Thus, higher education institutions must be prepared for increasing numbers of APA's.

Along with this population growth, APA's have been perceived of as a homogeneous group (Magner, 1993), and touted as the "model minority" (Chan, 1991; Takaki, 1989; Toupin & Son, 1991; Yee, 1992). That is, APA's are assumed to be economically and educationally successful when compared to other racial groups and Whites (Chan, 1991; Henkin, 1985; Hamamoto, 1992; Nagasawa & Espinosa, 1992; Takaki, 1989; Toupin & Son, 1991; Yee, 1992). Even the American Council on Education's (ACE, 1988) One-Third of a Nation report excluded APA's because it was believed that, "levels of educational attainment and income for Asian Americans are comparable to those of Whites, and sometimes exceed them" (p. 3). Thus, APA's were assumed not to need the same attention as African and Hispanic American students. Ong and Hee (1994) noted that APA's have had some noticeable success in academia and business, however, this success is rooted in such things as discriminatory immigration patterns. Moreover, there has been no empirical evidence to support this belief that all APA's are economically and educationally successful, nor innately more intelligent than other racial groups (Sue & Okazaki, 1990; Yee, 1992). However, the model minority has caused divisions among students and alienation for students who subscribe to the image but are not successful (Diversity Project, 1991; Toupin & Son, 1991). Thus, APA's are perceived of as leaders in some ways, as well as ideal

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college students. Specifically, this means that APA's are able to integrate and succeed in the collegiate environment, and should exhibit behaviors that make them good student leaders also. In order to better understand the experiences of APA leadership and co-curricular involvement, we will address the following salient areas (a) benefits of involvement and leadership experiences, (b) perception of campus involvement by APA students, (c) socialization differences between APA men and women, and (d) racism. Addressing these areas may enhance awareness of APA college students.

Benefits of Involvement and Leadership Experiences

Students who participated in campus curricular and co-curricular activities (i.e., leadership experiences) (a) are more likely to graduate (Tinto cited in Mutter, 1992; Astin, 1975; Upcraft, 1989); (b) have an opportunity to engage in developmental skills necessary for personal growth (Cooper, Healy, and Simpson, 1994; Whitt, 1994); (c) are more involved on campus in course learning and use of facilities such as the library (Abruhamowicz, 1988); and (d) have enhanced decision making ability (Berman, 1978). Erwin and Marcus-Mendoza (1988) concurred with Berman, and found that students who rated themselves low on leadership ability, also rated themselves lower on decision making ability. Additionally, Gerdes and Mallinckrodt (1994) found that students who persist at an institution tend to have positive attitudes, good relationships with faculty, and confidence in facing future challenges.

As student leaders, women and men may lead differently (Schein, 1989). However, leaders should be fair and have similar values with the group members (Rutte and Wilke, 1984). Thus, the best group might be somewhat homogeneous in terms of values, goals, and involvement with the group. Moreover, Astin's (1993) typology of a student leader seems to describe the prototypic or ideal leader (i.e., popular with the opposite sex, socially self confident, leadership ability, public speaking ability; p. 40). However, this typology may be culturally (i.e., Western) and gender specific in terms of what kind of characteristics are valued among student leaders. Whiff (1994) posited that men devalued collaborative and consensus decision making models, while college women tended to endorse these leadership models. Additionally, Holmstrom, Karp, and Silber (1994) found that female leadership styles were characterized by a more positive and up beat attitude, as well as a "readiness to deal with negative feelings in a more active and direct way"

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(p. 68). Hence, women leaders may be more inclined to consider the feelings of others as part of the desired outcome (Magolda, 1992). Thus, there may be various ways leadership is manifested that may not be considered as part of the leader typology.

Perception of Campus Involvement by APA Students

APA students may be an enigmatic group of diverse students. We will examine some of the issues present for APA involvement and leadership development, as well as some gender related barriers. Despite the image of the model minority, APA's may not be seen as a "traditional" leader in terms of how they work with others (i.e., deference to authority), present themselves in public (i.e., may be more reserved), and their comfort with public speaking and public accolades/awards (e.g., value of humility conflicts with overemphasizing personal attributes or public recognition). In contrast to Astin's (1993) typology of a student leader, APA's may (a) have difficulty expressing feelings and making difficult requests when compared to Caucasians (Fukuyama and Greenfield, 1983); (b) value retaining harmony in the relationship (Fukuyama and Greenfield, 1983); and (c) vary in assertiveness depending on the situation (i.e., less assertive with strangers when compared with Caucasians; Zane, Sue, Hu, Kwon, 1991).

Similarly, APA students (a) may not participate or value co-curricular involvement as much as other racial groups (Pace, 1990); (b) they may not expect to identify with a student organization during their first year (Minatoya & Sedlacek, 1983); and (c) they may not see the organization as an important piece "in their collegiate experience (Rooney, 1985). However, Wang, Sedlacek, and Westbrook (1991) found that APA's do appreciate the opportunity to interact in cultural organizations, but feel that culture clubs may segregate them from the overall campus community, and that they would rather mix with the majority students (i.e., Whites). Additionally, Wang et al. (1991) found that those APA students that did participate in one or more Asian cultural organizations felt a part of campus life and secure about interacting with others of the same race. However, some APA's do not see themselves as a "minority", and may dislike participating in "minority" student groups (Wang et al., 1991).

Some APA's may be more ethnocentric and express anxiety about interacting with Whites (Stephan and Stephan, 1989). Thus, participation in a cultural organization may be an opportunity for the student to interrelate with "those of a familiar background and culture" (Rooney, 1985, p.

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452). Mitchell and Dell (1992) postulate for Blacks that racial identity was related to participation and openness toward cultural and non-cultural activities. However, Balon (1995) found no significant differences between APA acculturation and co-curricular involvement. Another form of participation is community service, and Fuertes, Sedlacek, and Liu (1994) found that involvement with one's community was an important predictor in APA student retention. Kohatsu and Sedlacek (1990) found that over ten years at a predominantly White, large eastern university, APA men appeared to be more socially outgoing in school activities than APA women, even though the men tended to acculturate slower than APA women. However, "outgoingness" does not necessarily mean that APA men interact with non-APA students. Instead, this may reflect APA frequency of activity with their own community or groups.

Socialization Differences between APA Men and Women

There may be a sentiment within the APA community that APA men should be more educated than women (Loo & Ong, 1987; Yang, 1991). For example, among Hmong women, early marriages (e.g., 16 years old) may take priority over pursuing educational goals (Trueba, Cheng, & Ima, 1993). When compared to White men and women, APA women did less well economically even though the percentage of APA women with four or more years of post secondary education is "twice that of White women and exceeds White men" (Chu, 1988, p. 198). APA women may then be faced with the prospect of the double oppression of race and gender, and may feel an uncertainty about being an Asian and a woman (True, 1990). Loo and Ong (1987) went further to state that low level of education is related to (a) sense of powerlessness, (b) low self esteem, and (c) maintaining a subservient condition. Mau (1990) found that APA women, especially students, who do challenge gender role stereotypes anticipate the conflicts that may arise from taking on a non-traditional or male dominated roles. In part, this may be attributed to the gender role socializing of APA women at home into more traditional roles (i.e., care taking, family oriented; Chia, Wuensch, Childers, Chuang, Cheng, Cesar-Romero, Nava, 1994; Kohatsu and Sedlacek, 1990; Liu, 1992; Mau, 1990; True, 1990; Watkins and Yu, 1993; Yang, 1991). Thus, APA women may feel a conflict between the home and school, and may feel less confident to perform successfully in achievement oriented situations (Mau, 1990). Chow (1987) suggested that APA women who were more androgynous tended to have higher self esteem and greater career

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attainment. Thus, someone who is able to negotiate well between these two cultures probably will do better than someone who is more invested in one culture.

Use of counseling and other services by APA's may also be related to issues of race and gender. It has been shown in several studies that APA women may be more likely to seek counseling than APA men (Solberg, Ritsma, Davis, Tata, & Jolly, 1994; Tata & Leong, 1994). Recent Asian immigrants may also seek counseling due to anxiety about social situations and academic concerns (Sue and Zane, 1985). Because career aspirations tend to be an important aspect within the APA experience on campus, counseling with APA's may center on academic and career issues as the presenting concern (Cheng, Leong, & Geist, 1993; Tracey, Leong, & Glidden, 1986). However, there may be differences between APA men and women. For example, APA women may also have career interests more like Whites than APA men (Haverkamp Collins, & Hansen, 1994). Unfortunately, APA women are still stereotyped into gender specific occupational roles (i.e., secretarial work), and APA men stereotyped into "Asian" occupations (i.e., engineering, computer science; Leong and Hayes, 1990).

Racism

Racism, is a part of the APA student experience, and most seem to be aware of it (Sodowsky, Lai, & Plake, 1991; Kohatsu, 1992; Wang, Sedlacek, & Westbrook, 1991). Kohatsu (1992) found that an APA student's racial identity contributed to that individual's awareness of interpersonal and political racism, and that APA men were more aware of this-racism than women. This has been shown to be an important component in the retention of APA students (Fuertes, Sedlacek, & Liu, 1994). Bennett and Okinaka (1990) report that APA's who persist at an institution may experience feelings of alienation and dissatisfaction. However, Steward, Germain, and Jackson (1992) found that successful APA students had no significant experience of alienation or interacted differently than successful White and Hispanic students. Thus, part of feeling alienated may be associated with how one is able to deal effectively with racism on campus. Moreover, findings from Bennett and Okinaka (1992) and Steward, Germain, and Jackson (1992) seem to support the notion of APA college students being a diverse and complex group.

APA women may face forms of racism and prejudice that differ from APA men. APA women may be perceived of as "exotic", a "china doll" (Shah, 1994), or inferior and submissive

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(Bradshaw, 1994). Similarly, APA men may be perceived of as effeminate, docile, or asexual (Cheung, 1993). APA women community leaders often face sexism by APA men within those communities (Kim, 1993). Often, the APA women are "tolerated" because "community advocacy is viewed by many APA men as an extension of family service" (Kim, 1993, p. 259). Chamberlain (1991) notes that for APA women, their relationship with men in their group often has strong sexist and patriarchal undertones. The women then may face the quandary of their double oppression again, and feel alienated even within their own communities. Furthermore, modern "feminism" has been criticized by non-White groups for not including the agendas of APA women (Shah, 1994). For example, APA female values (e.g., focus on family, obedience, passivity, self restraint; Bradshaw, 1994) are criticized as too submissive and powerless (Cheung, 1993). Moreover, Cheung (1993) elucidated that silence and self restraint, as a form of APA communication, has been relegated to the margins by modern feminism, without the realization that silence is a strategy for survival in a racist environment. Thus, sensitivity must be employed not to denigrate "traditional values" immediately as a form of internalized oppression, but to see it as a piece of the APA identity.

Summary

APA students present an enigmatic picture of themselves on college campuses. Similarly, the diversity within the community means that APA students are struggling with many important issues that need to be addressed. In part, the literature provided information about the changing demographics of the APA community, the importance of co-curricular involvement, how cocurricular activities are perceived, what priorities APA students may have (i.e., career interests), and what kind of impediments APA students may face (i.e., racism and sexism). The purpose of the study was to examine gender differences among incoming APA students toward campus involvement and leadership activities. It is believed that a better understanding of how APA students perceive of their collegiate environment and APA students will help in enhancing programs for leadership and involvement.

Method

The University New Student Census (UNSC) was administered to a representative sample of 376 Asian Pacific American incoming freshmen students (59% male and 41% female) at a large

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east coast university. The UNSC is designed to assess demographic and attitudes variables related to expectations among incoming students. The data were analyzed by a one way multivariate analysis of variance and chi-square tests. All differences discussed below were significant at the .05 level.

Results

A series of chi-square analyses were employed to examine gender differences on perceptions about college and expectations about their experience. Results showed that males tended to be more inclined than females to go to and finish college in order to get a better job or go to graduate school. Additionally, the males believed that racism and crime were the most important social issues to solve. In terms of free time activity, males were more likely to be with their peers and participate in sports and athletic activities than females.

Additionally, males felt that intramural athletic activities and special interest groups were co-curricular activities of the most interest. Among females, graduate school preparation and obtaining a better job were reasons cited for going to college and graduation. Women also felt that crime and violence and racism were the most important social issues to resolve. Finally, women were likely than men to be with their peers during free time or reading, and found special interest groups and volunteer activities cocurricularly of most interest (See Table 1).

Insert Table 1 about here

In the one way MANOVA, a significant effect was found with gender and involvement items (Wilks Lambda = .30, F (12, 362) = 9.21, p < .05). Univariate results (See Table 2) showed a significant difference in (a) skills to be a leader and volunteerism, with women more likely to endorse leadership and volunteer activities than men; (b) difference in intramural sport and religious activities involvement, with men more likely to be involved in intramural activities but not in religious activities than women; (c) difference in student demonstrations, with women believing that it was more of a waste of time than men; (d) difference in belief that there should be a race relations course, with women believing that there should be one more than men; and a difference in comfort working in a group with men more comfortable than women.

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Insert Table 2 about here

Discussion

Among the APA incoming students, getting a better job and preparing oneself for graduate school were the most important reasons for going to college. Developing oneself was also important, and closely followed graduate training. The results support the suggestion that education is an important component in the lives of APA's, and that career expectations are as paramount (Cheng et al., 1993; Nagasawa & Espinosa, 1992; Yee, 1992). The APA students also believed that graduating was one step toward pursuing graduate work and receiving better jobs. The belief that college is for graduate school and obtaining a better job may impinge upon their feeling that co-curricular involvement is an important aspect in their collegiate experience. Thus, the APA student may be reluctant to sacrifice time away from their studies in order to pursue leadership or other student activities.

Additionally, men and women chose crime and violence, and racism as the top two social issues that need to be resolved. Therefore, APA students' are aware and sensitive to their environment, and cognizant of racism and prejudice (Fuertes, Sedlacek, & Liu, 1994; Kohatsu & Sedlacek, 1990; Sodowsky et al., 1992; Wang et al., 1992). Moreover, APA students may. be willing to expend time and energy with activities that relate to their concerns (i.e., combating campus racism). In regards to free time activity, being with their peers seemed to be the most prominent way to spend their time, followed by participating in sports or athletics for males and reading a book for females. This may reflect some of the gender role stereotypical behaviors between APA men and women, where the males are active and females are involved in more sedentary activities (Kohatsu & Sedlacek, 1990). However, this may not preclude APA women from participating in athletic activities. Instead, APA incoming women students may need other students to role model athletic participation and show that it is acceptable to involve themselves with these activities. Similarly, APA men felt that special interest groups and intramural activities were of most interest co-curricularly, while the women believed special interest groups and

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volunteer services were of most interest to them (e.g., Fuertes, Sedlacek, & Liu, 1994). Again, these results tend to suggest some stereotypical gender role behaviors, where APA women are involved in more care taking activities and males in competitive activities (Mau, 1990; True, 1990; Yang, 1991).

The APA male and female students seemed to be alike in their highest degree sought (i.e., master's, doctorate, and medical degree). Similarly, the groups were similar in what they perceived to be the hardest part of college adjustment (i.e., maintaining grades, time management, effectively studying, and choosing a career or major), and why they would leave before receiving their degree (i.e., finances and accepting a good job). Their financial concerns seem to be counter to the model minority myth that all APA's are economically well off, and career concerns also figure prominently in their college life. Both the men and women seemed to be alike in what they perceived to be barriers to campus involvement (i.e., no time, shyness, unsure how to get involved, and work schedule). Their concerns over time commitment and work schedules may be related to maintaining grades and time management. Similarly, shyness and being unsure of how to get involved may reflect some cultural values of restraint in social situations and unfamiliarity with collegiate life.

APA women tended to feel that they had the prerequisite skills to become a campus leader more than APA men. It may be that women have a broader view of what a leader is, and feel more likely to participate in campus, organizations than APA men. However, the APA men felt more comfortable working on a group project than women. This may indicate that APA men feel more inclined to be a leader when there are discreet goals and objectives such as in a prescribed "group project." Additionally, the APA women may see themselves as leaders in other, ways, and thus, may not identify themselves as leaders in a "traditional" sense (i.e., Astin, 1993). APA women believed in volunteer work more than men. This would be congruent with some gender role stereotypes (i.e., Kim, 1993) that community service is an extension of family work among APA's. Interestingly, APA women felt that demonstrations were more of a waste of time than men. This finding is congruent with APA women's overall lack of interest in political and social action groups. However, it may be that the idea of a demonstration is counter to the values of APA's, and that women are more likely to consider harmony rather than antagonism in

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relationships with others. Thus, the image of demonstrations or political groups may raise concerns among APA women that they may have to be adversaries to someone else.

The APA women also tended to believe that there should be a race relations course more than men. This profile would be consistent with APA women's tendency to be more concerned with community activities and events (e.g., Fuertes, Sedlacek, & Liu, 1994). Additionally, both APA men and women may favor dealing with controversial issues (i.e., racism) in a structured environment with an authority figure (i.e., course instructor) versus through a student organization. This may explain why APA men and women tended not to be interested in political or social action groups. Finally, APA men were less likely to participate in religious activities than women. For APA men, they may be more likely to be involved in church and religious activities off campus because they feel more comfortable with keeping the two activities separate.

There appeared to be no difference between APA men and women when it came to adjusting to college life, expectations of loneliness, joining a campus club, becoming a part of the student body, and speaking another language.

Conclusions and Recommendations in Working with APA Students

The results tend to suggest that there are differences between APA male and female students in their perceptions of student organizations and becoming involved on campus. APA women may want to become involved with student organizations, but may be limited by gender socialization and perceptions of themselves as non-leaders. These perceptions of themselves as non-leaders or reluctance to be involved may connote issues of competency or self-efficacy that are related to being in a new environment. Liu (1992) noted that, as commuter students, APA students may also struggle with competing time commitments such as other jobs and responsibilities at home. Moreover, APA women and men may prefer to engage in different kinds of activities (e.g., women may be more inclined toward community service activities more so than APA men). According to sex role stereotypes, the APA men tend to prefer sports as their form of group activity. Furthermore, the study tends to suggest that APA students have a goal to graduate, and are interested in becoming involved on campus but may be hindered in some way. The question then becomes, "are there enough of the right opportunities that engage APA students and help build them as leaders?"

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Student Affairs administrators need to see their role as educator (McKaig & Policello, 1987), and to help students better understand their place in society and challenge internalized oppression (Manning, 1994). As an educator, it becomes imperative to understand biases that one may carry into working with students. For example, criticizing an individual's loyalty to his or her family may cause some feelings of alienation (e.g., APA students may exhibit difficulties in mediating personal needs versus familial demands; Yang, 1991). Additionally, it may not be uncommon to encounter APA students in leadership positions who do not consider themselves "leaders." Instead, they may eschew this label in favor or a more subtle position in an organization. The student affairs staff member may want to enter into a discussion with the students to better understand how they define "leadership." Thus, the staff will be better equipped to tailor programs and education to meet the needs and comprehension of the APA students. Moreover, APA students may not see themselves as the leader that is "in front," but instead prefers to lead from behind in a type of supportive role (i.e., lead through example).

Moreover, engaging the students in their environment may be more facilitative to developing a relationship than inviting them to unfamiliar situations. APA students may be skeptical of strangers that want to be involved with them. This may be an extension of historical racism as well as negative experiences with non-Asians. Thus, as a means to develop a relationship, the student affairs staff has to gain the trust of the group members and become a part of their community. This may involve the staff member to participate in a groups activities and to support them visibly to coming to their events. Also, when working with APA students, it is important to take into consideration the priority career and academic issues are not only to students but to their parents (Liu, 1992). Thus, APA students may come to the staff member with academic concerns (e.g., conflicts with a major they want to pursue and one that their parents want them to pursue), as well as doubts about their career goals. Important in dealing with these concerns is not to have students choose one over another, but to help them process their conflict and how they can mediate a relationship with their parents or family with their own needs. One way of meeting this demand may be to help the student integrate their co-curricular experiences into their academic experiences and helping them to see that they can be congruent rather than disparate. Another consideration for APA student leaders are the absence of visible role models. For APA women,

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the issue of role models may be more pertinent since there is a dearth of visible APA women

leaders (True, 1990; Yang, 1991). Thus, there may not be anyone that they feel that could empathize with their conflicts and personal challenges, nor help to resolve them. Levitz and Noel (1989) note the importance of assisting incoming students to integrate with the campus through identifying with at least one particular person. It may be that a visible APA staff or faculty member could help APA students acclimate to the campus.

The "advisor uses personal expertise and perspective to stimulate individual development of members and the overall development of the organization" (McKaig & Policello, 1987, p. 47). That is, with the knowledge of student development and an understanding of APA students, the student affairs staff is better able to provide leadership opportunities that are more congruent with the students. One of the benefits of working closely with APA students may also be the realization that leadership manifests itself in different ways.

Additionally, APA student leadership may also mean different challenges. For example, when APA women become the visible leaders for student organizations, APA males may feel threatened or uncomfortable by the unfamiliar role of APA females. The challenge for the student affairs staff person may be to mediate the latent gender conflicts that can manifest as disagreements over the APA women's leadership style. For example, it may not be uncommon for APA men in an organization to critique the APA woman's leadership style with sexist undertones. Additionally, APA students may seek direct advice from whomever is working with them. This is related to cultural values of deference to authority and seeking concrete instructions versus ambiguous suggestions. The challenge will be to balance student and organizational development. It is hoped that the data and recommendations can be used to develop programs that promote APA men's and women's leadership and involvement.

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Table 1: Gender Differences in College Expectations
Item		Percentage of Respondents Stating Option
		Male	Female
*Main Reason Decided to go to College
	Get a better job	17.1	11.1
	Gain a general education	7.5	5.6
	Learn more about the world	2.7	1.9
	Learn critical thinking skills	--	0.3
	Make more money	6.1	1.9
	Meet new, interesting people	1.3	--
	Prepare for graduate school	12.6	10.4
	Become more socially responsible	0.3	1.9
	Develop myself generally	9.9	6.7
	Other	1.9	1.1
Highest Academic Degree Intended
	Do not expect to complete degree	0.5	--
	Associate	--	0.3
	Bachelor's	8.2	4.8
	Master's	20.2	11.4
	Doctorate	17.8	12
	Law	2.7	0.8
	Medical	9.3	9.8
	Divinity	0.3	--
	Other	0.5	1.3
Expect to be the Hardest Part of Adjusting to College
	Deciding whether to get involved in campus issues	2.9	1.9
	Becoming a more critical and independent thinker	3.7	3.5
	Earning satisfactory grades	11.5	8.3
	Getting to meet and know other students-both sexes	5.6	4
	Meeting financial expenses	6.1	2.9
	Budgeting time	11.2	8.3
	Studying efficiently	14.2	5.3
	Selecting a field of study and/or career	4	5.6
	Other	0.3	0.5
* Reason for Graduation
	College graduates always get the better jobs	14.1	6.1
	A college degree is the only way I can enter my chosen job	10.1	5.6
	Parents or relatives expect me to	3.2	2.9
	The opportunity to meet and know many new and different people	0.3	1.1
	College graduates earn more money	6.9	0.8
	Experience gained from extra-curricular activities	0.3	0.5
	I enjoy studying and academic work	1.9	1.3
	I must have a degree in order to enter graduate or professional school	22.1	19.4
	Other	0.8	2.7
Expected Reason for Leaving School before Degree
	Absolutely certain that I will obtain a degree	19.1	16
	To accept a good job	10.4	5.1
	To enter military service	0.8	0.3
	It would cost more than my family or I could afford	11.7	6.9
	Marriage	0.3	1.6
	Disinterest in study	6.1	3.2
	Lack of academic ability	5.1	2.7
	Insufficient reading or study skills	2.1	1.3
	Other	4	3.5
Most Important Social Issue to Solve
	Racism	13.1	8.3
	Integrity of those in power	5.3	1.9
	Sexism	0.3	1.6
	Militarism	0.5	--
	Ecology/Pollution	5.1	3.7
	Drug Abuse	2.4	2.9
	The economy	3.7	1.9
	Tax reform	1.1	--
	Crime and violence	24.1	19
	Other	4	1.1
Barriers to Involvement on Campus
	No Time	25.1	15.7
	Work Schedule	6.9	4.5
	Family Interests	0.5	0.5
	Friends are off campus	1.6	0.8
	Shyness	9.9	8.8
	Parking hassles	1.6	1.1
	Commuting distance	4	3.7
	Unsure of how to get involved	8.3	4.8
	Nothing interests me on campus	0.8	--
	Other	0.8	0.5
*Activity During Free Time
	Hang out with friends	25.9	15.7
	Exercise	5.3	2.4
	Read a book	1.9	5.3
	Watch television	1.9	2.7
	See a movie	1.6	2.1
	Participate in sports/athletics	18.9	4.8
	Do volunteer work	2.4	3.7
	Other	2.4	3.7
*Extracurricular Activities of Most Interest
	Student publication/communications	1.9	2.9
	Musical or dramatic organization	2.4	5.1
	Intramural or intercollegiate athletics	19.7	5.3
	Volunteer services on or off campus	3.7	6.9
	Political or social action group	2.4	0.8
	Religious groups	3.5	3.2
	Special interest groups	20	9.3
	Department subject matter clubs	3.5	5.1
	Other	2.7	1.6

Note: * p<05 using chi square.

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Table 2: Means and Standard Deviations of APA Student's Perception of Campus Participation
Item	Gender
	Male		Female		All Students
	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
I do not have the skills to be a leader on campus*	3.25	1.05	2.88	1.04	3.1	1.06
Everyone should do some volunteer work*	2.36	0.98	2.13	0.95	2.27	0.97
I expect to participate in some form of intramural sports at UMCP*	2.22	1.02	3.07	1.18	2.56	1.16
I do not expect to be involved in religious activities at UMCP*	2.67	1.27	2.98	1.34	2.79	1.3
I expect to have a hard time adjusting to the social life in college.	3.21	1.05	3.09	1.09	3.17	1.07
I want to join some campus clubs or groups.	1.89	0.84	1.74	0.73	1.83	0.8
I expect to be lonely during my freshmen year	3.51	1.18	3.67	1.13	3.58	1.16
I feel a part of the student body	2.78	0.89	2.8	0.78	2.79	0.85
I can speak a language other than English well.	2.2	1.36	2.11	1.26	2.17	1.32
Demonstrations on controversial issues are a waste of time*	3.65	0.97	3.85	0.9	3.73	0.94
UMCP should require a race relations course*	2.96	1.09	2.71	0.99	2.86	1.06
I feel comfortable working with others on a group project*	2.23	0.98	2.44	1.06	2.31	1.02

Note. *p < .05 using MANOVA.