UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND AT
COLLEGE PARK
COLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND
William E. Sedlacek
Computer time was provided by the
Computer Science Center, University of Maryland at College Park. The data
discussed were gathered in cooperation with the Orientation Office, University
of Maryland at College Park.
COUNSELING CENTER
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND
COLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND
Sue H. Kim and William E.
Sedlacek
Research Report #7-94
Summary
Of 212 African American freshmen who
completed the "University New Student Census" during summer
orientation, more males than females reported that the main reason they
attended college and planned to graduate was to make more money. Males also
indicated less interest in pursuing higher academic degrees. Fewer females than
males intended to work during their first year. In addition, females and males
differed regarding expectations about selection of a major and difficulty of
college coursework. More African American females reported a belief that a
declared major was better than an undeclared one, that college coursework would
be stimulating and exciting, and that coursework would require more work than
high school classes did.
In addition, African American males and
females indicated different social expectations related to college. More males
reported an interest in counseling for problems with alcohol, although the
overall percentages interested were low. More females than males felt that
everyone should do volunteer work and expected to be involved in campus groups,
including religious activities. Of the students interested in joining formal
student groups, more females intended to join a variety of groups, while more
males expressed interest specifically in campus athletic groups.
Many of these areas in which gender
differences were found correspond to noncognitive variables, which have been
shown to predict success and adjustment of nontraditional students (Sedlacek,
1993). It is possible that noncognitive variables such as "demonstrated
community service" and "preference for long term goals" may help
to explain gender differences in retention of African American college
students. Continued study of within-group differences among African
American students may yield information useful to those providing counseling
programs, orientation programs, or support services for this student
population.
1
Given
that people's behaviors are influenced by their expectations (Rotter, Chance,
& Phares, 1972), the beliefs, hopes, and anticipations of students entering
college for the first time may help to determine their subsequent satisfaction
with school, their ability to learn, and their ability to adjust to unexpected
or novel experiences in a successful manner. In turn, these factors may
influence overall academic success and social integration which have been
linked to persistence and retention rates (Tinto, 1987).
One
college student population which has had consistently higher attrition rates
than other groups is the African American student population (American Council
on Education, 1988; Siggelkow, 1991). Sedlacek (1987) found that African
American students on predominantly White campuses experienced feelings of
isolation and alienation. Other researchers have proposed that campus racism,
lack of special counseling programs, financial difficulties and similar factors
may account for the lower graduation rate of this group (Gillian, 1989,
Siggelkow, 1991: Trippi & Cheatham, 1991). However, there continues to
exist a need for more research to understand the experience of African American
students on college campuses (Hughes, 1987).
Delworth
(1989) suggested that considering within-group differences among African
American college students might assist in learning about their experiences.
Reid and Comas-Diaz (1990) stressed the need for examination of gender
and ethnic
2
interactions. Instead of making between-group
comparisons of students based on race (i.e. White versus African American),
which is commonly done in the college student literature, researchers may need
to focus instead on the college experiences of female and male African
Americans to gain a better understanding of issues pertinent to this group.
Previous
researchers of gender differences within this group have found that different
aspects of the college environment seem to be more challenging for either males
or females. Regarding Black females, Styles (1969) found that at predominantly
White universities, their self-concepts were lower than those of Black
males. African American women face both institutional racism and institutional
sexism within the university which taken together may influence their self-esteem
negatively (Greene, 1994). Although Byrd and Sims (1987) found that Black
females were less apprehensive about communicating in a class which was
predominantly White, the authors also discovered that lower apprehension was
associated with a lower GPA. Thus, African American males may be rewarded for
being more apprehensive and less talkative in class. Finally, in a study of 108
female and 66 male Black college students, Carter and Helms (1987) found that
females saw themselves as "more at the mercy of natural forces than did
Black men."
On the
other hand, results indicate that college environments can be hostile to
African American males as well. Fleming (1984) stated that on predominantly
White campuses, Black males'
development suffered more than that of Black
females. Other
3
researchers reported that Black females at
predominantly White universities were more assertive and self-reliant,
took greater advantage of student services, and viewed themselves as more
resistant than Black males to negative stimuli (Hughes, 1987; Payton, 1985).
Black males were found to be less likely to consider changing majors and less
likely to communicate with others about their problems (Cheatham, Shelton,
& Ray, 1987; Hughes, 1987). Also, more Black males than females tended to
drop out of college (American Council on Education, 1988; Trippi &
Cheatham, 1991) .
Thus,
gender differences among African American college students have been noted, but
conclusions regarding whether males or females experience more difficulties in
the college environment have not been reached. In contrast, other researchers
have found a lack of gender differences within African American student populations
in areas such as satisfaction with the institution, peer group relations,
academic integration, tendency to make internal attributions of personal
problems, type of most bothersome problem, and pattern of psychological
distress (Cheatham, Shelton, & Ray, 1987; Nettles & Johnson, 1987).
All of
the studies mentioned above were conducted with African American students who
already had begun their college experiences (i.e. classes had started). There
is a lack of literature on the expectations of these students regarding what
college would be like for them. As stated previously, expectations may
influence subsequent behavior, including perceptions and reactions. In this
4
study of incoming African American freshman
students, their expectations about their upcoming college experience were
examined before classes had begun. Gender differences were analyzed in an
attempt to understand better the preconceptions of these students as they began
their college careers.
The
annual "University New Student Census" was administered to 2,538
entering freshmen during summer orientation at a large public eastern
university. More than 90% of all new freshmen attended orientation. The 52
Census items concerned student expectations about various aspects of the college
experience, including motivation for attending college, goals, and interest in
becoming involved in campus activities. Of the sample, 212 students
selfidentified as Black, and of that group, 58% were female. Gender differences
among these African American students were assessed using chi-square or
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) tests. All differences discussed
were significant at the .05 level.
Gender
differences were found on academic expectations such as motivation for
attending college, academic goals, motivation for completing a degree, work
status, selection of a major, and difficulty of coursework. Also, males and
females differed regarding social expectations including interest in counseling
for
alcohol-related problems, group identification,
and involvement in extra curricular activities.
5
Of the
nine reasons to attend college presented, the top four selected by African
American freshmen were: to get a better job, to prepare for graduate school, to
develop [myself] generally, and to make more money. Although similar numbers of
males and females agreed that they attended college in order to get a better
job, gender differences were found on the other reasons. Of the respondents who
selected preparing for graduate school as their primary reason for attending
college, 73% were female. Sixty nine percent of those attending college to
develop themselves generally were also female. In contrast, more males chose
making more money as the main reason for deciding to go to college.
In
addition to differences in motivation for attending college, gender differences
were found in the students' stated goals, specifically in the highest academic
degree to be obtained. More females than males indicated an intent to pursue
higher educational goals. Of the freshmen who reported that a medical degree
was the highest degree they intended to obtain, 77% were female. Of those who
selected law degree, 69% were female; for doctoral degree, 63% were female.
Besides
motivation to attend college and degree to be obtained, African American
females and males reported different reasons as to why they wanted to complete
their degree. Of the freshmen who indicated that they would most likely
complete
6
graduation requirements because college graduates
earn more money, 67% were male. Gender differences were noted in other
motivations for graduating with a degree as well. For example, of respondents
who indicated that they needed a degree in order to enter graduate/professional
school, 69% were female; 73% of the freshmen who reported their interest in
ideas and pursuit of knowledge as motivation to graduate were female. Other
options which did not differ by gender included: a degree is the only way to
enter my chosen career and parents/relatives expect me to [obtain a degree].
In
addition to having different academic motivation and goals, incoming African
American female and male freshmen indicated different expectations about work
status and group identification. For their first year on campus, most of the
students reported that they did not plan to work, and 57% of those students
were female. Of the freshmen planning to work in federally-funded
work/study programs or to obtain other on-campus work, the majority were
female. In contrast, 60% of the freshmen intending to work off campus their
first year were male.
African
American females were more likely than males to agree that having a declared major
was better than being undecided, that courses would be stimulating and
exciting, and that college coursework would require more concentration and
studying than high school classes.
7
Counseling interests
More
males than females reported an interest in seeking counseling for problems with
alcohol, although the mean for males still indicated that they were not very
interested in this type of counseling.
Gender
differences were found regarding which formal group respondents expected to be
associated with during their first year. Of the nine options, the top three
chosen were: no formal group, residence hall group, and campus athletic group.
Twenty three percent of African American respondents did not expect to be
identified with any formal group; of these, 59% were female. Sixty six percent
of the freshmen expecting to identify with a residence hall group were female.
Finally, 85% of those indicating that they expected to be involved with a
campus athletic group were male. In fact, in every formal group category except
campus athletic group, the majority of respondents were female. Some examples
included: campus academic group (74% female), campus non-academic or
social club (71% female), and off campus organization (64% female).
Through
a MANOVA, significant gender differences were found for nine of the twenty six
items related to general expectations and attitudes toward college. Table 1
shows the means and standard deviations for the significant items.
In a
related item, gender was found to be associated with intention to participate
in different extracurricular activities.
8
More females agreed that everyone should do
volunteer work, and more females also expressed an interest in joining a campus
club or group. Also, females were more likely to expect to be involved in
religious activities while at school.
Expecting
to participate in intramural sports was more frequently reported by males,
which is consistent with the earlier finding that more males expected to
associate with a campus athletic group for their first year. Following one or
more of the university's athletic teams was also more likely for male
respondents.
In
summary, gender differences among African American freshman students who had
not started classes yet were found in their expectations of college, ranging
from academic motivation and goals to extracurricular interests and work
status.
The
discovery of within-group differences among African American freshmen should
not be too surprising. In 1990, Sue and Sue observed that within-racial
group differences often can be much larger than between-racial group
differences. However, the challenge becomes to utilize this information about
incoming African American freshman students so that their college persistence,
satisfaction levels, and retention rates are maximized. As Hawkins (1989)
stated, "schools that recruit and accept minority students have the
obligation to create a supportive environment... [with] appropriate advising
and counseling [services]..." (p. 176) to help these students succeed. One
of the
9
keys to planning such "appropriate"
programming may lie in determining the specific needs and expectations of
African American students, both male and female.
A
useful organizing principle with which to interpret these findings concerns
noncognitive variables as valid predictors of college success for
nontraditional students (Sedlacek, in press). Many of the areas in which these
African American males and females differed correspond to noncognitive
variables. For example, more African American females than males reported an
intention to pursue graduate work, possibly indicating that these females
demonstrated a "preference for long term goals," a noncognitive
variable that has been shown to predict college success for nontraditional
students (Sedlacek, 1993). Bohn (1973) found that Black students who made plans
were more successful than those who didn't. Thus, their ability to strive for
long term goals may explain Black females' high graduation rates compared with
their male peers.
Regarding
work status, group identification, and involvement in extracurricular
activities, which correspond with the noncognitive variables of
"demonstrated community service" and "successful leadership
experience," several points can be made. First, the primary group
affiliation and activities anticipated by African American males was athletics.
For females, a wider variety of groups including residence hall groups,
academic groups, and social groups were considered as potential activities in
which to
10
participate in college. Also, more females expected
to be involved with religious activities and volunteer work. Mallinckrodt and
Sedlacek (1987) found that African American students who used the campus gym
were more likely to stay in school. African American males' stated interest in
athletics may provide an opportunity for these students to gain a sense of
community and to acquire leadership skills, factors which predict success for
nontraditional students. However, the African American females indicated
intentions to get involved with a wider variety of extracurricular activities
which may provide them with a stronger cultural community and more opportunity
to be a leader, which could account for the higher retention rates of African
American female students.
Finally, the students' expectations about academic issues can be compared with the noncognitive variable of "realistic selfappraisal" (Sedlacek, 1993). More African American females than males expected that college coursework would require a significant amount of concentration and studying and that courses would be stimulating. If these opinions result in actions such as spending more time studying, obtaining tutoring assistance if needed, and being interested and involved in classes, then certainly, Black females may experience more success than Black males in the college environment. Recognizing that the transition from high school to college may involve some academic adjustments may be an important part of "realistic self-appraisal."
11
Assessing
the different expectations of African American incoming freshmen is a useful
first step in the process of identifying ways of assisting these students in
the transition to college life. Future research efforts could be directed
toward a longitudinal study of how African American males and females deal with
disillusionment when their expectations are not met. Possibly there are gender
differences in how they cope with disappointment. Hughes (1987) found African
American males and females had different adjustment patterns on campus.
More
research is also needed in clarifying how these students form their
expectations, whether they get information from friends, parents, the media, or
other sources, to prepare them for the college experience. Interviews or open-ended
survey questions may be more useful in learning why African American males may
value shorter term goals such as earning more money over longer term goals such
as obtaining a graduate degree.
Evaluations
of successful retention programs for entering African American college
students, such as The Bridge (Gold, Deming, & Stone, 1992), need to be
conducted to determine whether these programs are equally effective for both
males and females. Also, Kramer, Taylor, Rich, & Udarbe (1993) proposed a
method for creating individualized academic plans for freshmen. Recognizing the
uniqueness of each African American student, including within group gender
differences, may yield plans that are more suited to these students' needs.
12
Findings of within-group gender differences among African American college students may be more helpful to researchers and practitioners when placed within a theoretical context. It is proposed that noncognitive variables are useful as a framework to account for gender differences on academic and social expectations of incoming African American freshmen.
13
American
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minority enrollments. Higher Education and National Affairs, 37(4), 3.
Bohn,
M.J. Jr. (1973). Personality variables in successful workstudy performance.
Journal of College Student Personnel, 14 (2) , 135-140.
Byrd,
M.L., & Sims, A.L. (1987). Communication apprehension among Black students
on predominantly White campuses. Western Journal of Black Studies, 11(3), 105-110.
Carter,
R.T., & Helms, J.E. (1987). The relationship of Black value-orientations
to racial identity attitudes. Special issue: Assessments for minority
populations: Traditional and nontraditional approaches. Measurement and
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H.E., Shelton, T.O., & Ray, W.J. (1987). Race, sex, causal attribution, and
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U. (1989). Identity in the college years: Issues of gender and ethnicity.
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J. (1984). Blacks in college. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
14
Gillian,
R. (1989). Access is not enough: A report to
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University of Maryland at College Park.
Unpublished manuscript.
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Mallinckrodt,
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Incorporated.
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16
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17
|
Table 1: Means* and
Standard Deviations of African American Freshman Expectations by Gender Where
Differences Were Found** |
||||
|
Item |
MALE |
FEMALE |
||
|
|
Mean |
SD |
Mean |
SD |
|
Academic Concerns |
|
|
|
|
|
Overall, I would say that having a declared major is
better than having an undecided major. |
2.83 |
1.05 |
2.5 |
1.1 |
|
I expect that, for the most part, my courses will be
stimulating and exciting. |
2.43 |
0.72 |
2.16 |
0.77 |
|
I do not expect coursework at [this university] to require
more concentration and studying than my high school classes. |
4.54 |
0.77 |
4.73 |
0.52 |
|
Counseling Interests |
|
|
|
|
|
I am interested in seeking counseling for problems with
alcohol. |
4.24 |
1.25 |
4.62 |
0.93 |
|
Participation in Extracurricular Activities |
|
|
|
|
|
Everyone should do some volunteer work. |
2.8 |
1 |
2.45 |
0.91 |
|
I expect to participate in some form of intramural sports
at [this university]. |
2.29 |
1.14 |
3.01 |
1.21 |
|
I expect to be involved in religious activities while at
[this university]. |
3.27 |
1.06 |
2.77 |
1.14 |
|
I closely follow one or more [of this university's]
athletic teams. |
2.33 |
1.21 |
3.25 |
1.33 |
|
I want to join some campus club or groups. |
2.48 |
1.07 |
1.61 |
0.75 |
*1=Strongly
Agree; 5=Strongly Disagree
**Significant
at .05 level using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)