COUNSELING CENTER
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND
COLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND
SEX DIFFERENCES IN
COMPUTER ORIENTATION BY
HOLLAND TYPE
Rose M. Abler and William E.
Sedlacek
Research Report #3-86
Computer time for this
report has been furnished by the Computer Science Center, University of
Maryland, College Park
COUNSELING CENTER
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND
COLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND
SEX DIFFERENCES IN COMPUTER
ORIENTATION BY HOLLAND TYPE
Rose M. Abler arid William
E. Sedlacek
Research Report # 3-86
Differences in computer attitudes due to sex and
Holland type were investigated. Subjects were 289 incoming freshmen at the
University of Maryland (44% male; 56% female). The Computer Attitude Scale
(Loyd and Gressard, 1984b) was used to assess computer orientation. Females
were significantly more anxious, less confident, and lower in computer liking
than were males (p < .01). Enterprising types were significantly more
anxious, less confident, and lower in computer liking than were Realistic or
Investigative types (p < .01). Artistic types were significantly more
anxious than Realistic types and less confident and lower in computer liking
than both Realistic and Investigative types (p < .01). The significant sex
differences are not reflected in previous data on the Computer Attitude Scale
but the differences among Holland
types are conceptually consistent with predictions of which Holland types would
have more positive computer attitudes.
Computers 3
Sex Differences
Computer Orientation by
Holland Type
Exploring
student vocational interests has much practical value for student affairs professionals, for these
vocational interests can be effectively used to indicate curriculum and program
needs (Campbell Hansen, 1981). It may be particularily important to examine
student interests and attitudes toward computers since computers play an
increasingly important role in vocational preparation today (Lawton &
Gerschner , 1982). Computer literacy has become as necessary to the contemporary student as literacy in
reading and writing was to students of previous generations (Ringle, 1981).
However, not all students are comfortable with these new demands for computer
competence; indeed, many may experience what Jay (1981) describes as
"computerphobia." Such students may be fearful or anxious about
computers, resistent to talking or thinking about them, and/or hostile and
agressive toward computers. Loyd and Gressard (1984a) surmise that such attitudes preclude computer competence. Another
group of students exist who have very different, attitudes
toward computers. “Hackers” are so attracted to
computer work that it becomes an obsession, to the exclusion of other work and
human relationships (Ingber, 1981). Hackers and computerphobic
students are at the extreme ends of a continuum of
student computer attitudes, and vocational and student affairs
professionals must be prepared to work with both groups, as well as the many other students who are between those two extremes.
Holland (1979) has developed
a system of identifying vocational types which away help in organizing
knowledge about student vocationally-related attitudes toward computers.
Computer work, in general involves Investigative qualities, although other
Holland types can be important in such related occupations as computer
technician (Realistic) or Computer Operator (Social, Gottfredson, Holland &
Ogawa, 1982). Given their task-oriented nature and preference for abstract problem-solving, it might
be predicted that Investigative types would be more positive toward computer
work than Artistic types, who have more self-expressive, individualistic
needs. A systemmatic exploration of such differences is necessary in order to
make generalizations.
Sex differences in computer
attitudes may be a complex but potentially important consideration. Contrary to
initial expectations, Loyd and Gressard (1984a) found no differences between
male and female attitudes toward computers. However as women become more
vocationally oriented, especially toward nontraditional, technical careers computer
competence becomes increasingly important. Martinez, Sedlacek, and Bachhuber
(1988) found that recent women college graduates wished they had taken a more
practical, career oriented major. The impact of computers an the market-place
has been noted (Loyd & Gressard 1984a); how many of those women wished they
had received more training in
computer-related work? Further, women who had
expressed an interest in nontraditional fields (more likely to require
extensive computer work) early in their undergraduate careers resorted
receiving less support in their vocational planning than did women choosing
traditional careers (Boulle-Lauria, Sedlacek & Waldo, 1985).
Given the importance of
computer competence in vocational planning and given possible differences ire
computer attitudes between students depending on their Holland type and their
sex, an investigation of these variables was conducted.
A
sample of 289 incoming freshmen (44% male; 56% female) at the University of Maryland, College Park
completed the Computer Attitude Scale (Loyd & Gressard, 1984b). The
Computer Attitude Scale consists of three subscales, each of which represents a
specific computer-related attitude significantly affecting student
achievement. The Computer Anxiety score reflects fear about computers
and/or learning to use them; the Computer Confidence score
indicates the degree of self-confidence about computer abi1ities and the Computer
Liking score represents how well one likes computers and enjoys computer
work. Loyd and Gressard (1984b) found alpha coefficients of .87, .91, and .91
for Computer Anxiety; Computer Confidence, and Computer Liking, respectively.
The items on each subscale are computer-related
statements worded in positive or negative terns. Students
were assigned a one letter Holland code on the basis of their responses to an
item which asked them to list, by occupation, their top three vocational goals.
Trained recorders coded the occupation as Realistic, Investigative, Artistic,
Social, Enterprising, or Conventional. Valid results using this method of
assigning Holland codes have been demonstrated (Toenjes & Borgen, 1974;
Tonesk, Suziedelis & Lorr, 1974; Wakefield Doughtie, 1973).
Results were analyzed easing
2-way multivariate analysis of variance MANOVA (sex and Holland type) on the three computer subscales with Student-Newman
Kuels post-hoc tests.
The MANOVA revealed significant main effects for both variables on Computer Anxiety, Computer Confidence, and Computer Liking (p < .01). No interaction effects were demonstrated on any of three subscales. Table 1 shows the Holland codes for the
entire sample, grouped by sex. The absence of any
Conventional females is to be noted.
Computer Anxiety scores. Females were significantly
more anxious
than males (F=31.10, p < .01). Holland type was
also significant as a rain effect (F=3.69, p < .01). Post hoc tests revealed
that Enterprising and Artistic types were significantly more anxious than
Realistic types. Enterprising students were also significantly more anxious
than Investigative students.
Males were also significantly more computer confident than females (F=34.37, p < .01) (Table 3). Again, Holland type was also significant (F=5.64, p < .01). Post hoc procedures showed
that Realistic students were significantly more
confident than Enterprising, Artistic, and Social students. Investigative students
were also significantly more confident than Enterprising and Artistic students.
Table 4 shows similar trends
for Computer Liking. Again, males indicated a higher liking for computers than
did females (F=19.01, p < .01). Post-hoc testing on the significant
main effect of Holland type (F=4.82, p < .01) revealed that Realistic
and Investigative students liked computers more than
did Enterprising and Artistic students.
Several results appear to
have implications for vocational and student affairs professionals. First is
the information provided by the Holland coding. Across all dimensions (Computer
Anxiety, Computer Confidence, and Computer Liking, Realistic and Investigative
students expressed more positive computer attitudes than did Enterprising and
Artistic students. Since they like to work with mechanical equipment and
function better with things than with people or ideas, the technical aspects of
computer work are likely very appealing to Realistic types. Investigative
students also had positive computer attitudes, but possibly for different
reasons than did Realistic students., Programming aspects of computer work
would probably be very appealing to Investigative types because of the
abstract, problem-solving nature of the tasks involved.
Perhaps moue important to consider are the possible reasons why Artistic and Enterprising students did not have positive attitudes toward computers. As mentioned above, the self expressive, individualistic nature of Artistic students’
vocational interests is not clearly compatible with computer-related tasks, and Artistic students may not see computer competence as relevant to their career goals. However, computers are becoming important in many Artistic occupations, and students interested in those occupations must be prepared. In the theatre, for example, computers are being used in set design as well as in lighting (Klepper, 1984), In the art room, computers are used in interactive video roles, for printing techniques, and to create graphics (Snyder, 1985). One group for which computer skills are obviously not irrelevant but who demonstrated less than positive computer attitudes eras the Enterprising group of students. In Enterprising occupations such as sales manager, stock broker, public relations manager, and account executive, computers provide important functions, yet without positive attitudes toward computer work Enterprising students could have a more difficult tine dealing with their job responsibilities. teach of the strength of Enterprising types lies in their energy, leadership, and persuasatory skills; these are among the most important qualifications they bring to their jobs. However, specific skills that are required, such as competence ire computer tasks, are not necessarily avoidable.
Vocational counselors should
be aware of this possibility of computer anxiety and lack of computer
confidence and liking when working with Enterprising students. Further,
workshops conducted through a joint effort of the business department (where
many
Enterprising students are enrolled), the campus
computer science center, and the campus vocational counselors could be used to
inform these students early about the importance of computer competence in their
career goals. This could give them experience in simulated Enterprising-relevant
tasks (making the skills more meaningful for them), and provide them with
opportunities for more extensive computer classes. Given that Loyd and Gressard
(1984a) found that computer experience was positively related to better
computer attitudes, such workshops could help to increase positive attitudes toward computers of
Enterprising students.
Sex differences between male and female computer attitudes is interesting, especially in light of Loyd and Gressard's finding indicating no sex differences on the same computer attitudes (1984a). Given the three components of computer attitudes--Computer Anxiety, Computer Confidence, and Computer Liking—the present results do not necessarily mean that female students are less interested in computers than men. True, they did not indicate a great deal of liking for computers, but this could easily relate to their high anxiety and lack of confidence. The anxiety and the confidence, problems must be overcome before the degree of liking will change, and again, Loyd and Gressard's (1984a) discussion of the importance of computer experience is relevant here. Instructors in particular academic curricula can be sensitive to possible computer-related problems of their
female students (especially those in Enterprising and Artistic fields, as discussed previously). Campus women's center groups might work with career counselors and computer science center professionals on workshops such as the sort recommended for Enterprising students, with particular emphasis on learning computer skills in a nonthreatening environment.
The importance of computer
skills for those entering the job market cannot be ignored, arid the present
results identify groups of students whoa nay particularly benefit from extra
camputer-related attention from vocational and student affairs professionals.
The results are conceptually consistent with informal observations regarding
which students would be likely to have more positive computer attitudes. Given
what we know about Holland types (Campbell & Hansen, 1981) it is not
surprising that Investigative and Realistic students indicated more positive
computer attitudes than did Artistic students. However, logical assumptions and
informal observations need to be investigated empirically, as done in the
present study. Sometimes results can be surprising. A case in point is the lack
of sex differences in computer attitudes found by Loyd and Gressard (1984a).
Results of the current study strongly indicate significant differences, and
given these conflicting findings, replications are needed to determine whether
sex differences exist in other settings. By being better attuned to student
computer attitudes and problems, vocational and student affair's professionals
can better help
students
in successful vocational planning.
Boul1e-Lauria,
E., Sedlacek, W. & Waldo, M. (1985). A longitudinal comparison of
traditional and nontraditional career choices by sex. College and University,
60, 235-256.
Campbell,
D. & Hansen, J. (1981). Manual for the SVIB-SCII. Palo Alto,
CA: Stanford University Press.
Gottfredson,
G., Holland, J., & Ogawa, D. (1982). Dictionary of Holland Occupational
Codes. Palo Alto: CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Holland,
J. (1985). The Self-Directed Search (1985 ed.) Odessa, FL.
Psychological Assessment Resources.
Ingber,
D. (1981). Computer addicts. Science Digest, 89, 88-91 ; 114.
Jay,
T. (1981). Computerphobia: What to do about it. Educational Technology, 21,
47-48.
Klepper,
M. (1984). The Macintosh: Is it the answer for designers? Theatre Craft,18,
20.
Lawton,
J. & Gerschner, V. (1982). A review of the literature of attitudes towards
computers and computer-based instruction. Journal of Research and
Development in Education, 16, 50-55.
Loyd,
B. & Gressard, C. (1984a). The effects of sex, age, and computer experience
or computer attitudes. Association for Educational Data Systems Journal
, l7, 67-77.
Loyd,
B. & Gressard, C. (1984b). Reliability and factorial validity of computer
attitude scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 44, 501-505.
Martinez,
.A., Sedlacek, W., & Bachhuber, T. (1985). Male and female college
graduates: Seven months later. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 34, 77-84.
Ringle,
M. (1981). Computer literacy: New directions and new aspects. Computers and
People, 30, 12-15.
Snyder,
R. (1985). Art and computers. Arts and Activities, 18, 15.
Toenjes,
C. & Borgen, F. (1974). Validity of generalization of Holland's hexagonal
model. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, 7, 79-85.
Tonesk,
X., Suziedelis, A. & Lorr, M. (1974). Vocational interest types of men-in-general.
Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, 7, 74-78.
Wakefield,
Jr., G., Doughtie, E. (1973). The geometric relationship between Holland's
personality typology and the Vocational Preference Inventory. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 20, 513-518.
|
Table 1: Holland Types by Sex |
||
|
Holland Type |
Male |
Female |
|
Realistic |
40% |
20% |
|
Investigative |
30% |
28% |
|
Artistic |
7% |
14% |
|
Social |
4% |
11% |
|
Enterprising |
18% |
27% |
|
Conventional |
1% |
0% |
|
Total |
100% |
100% |
|
Table 2: Means and Standard Deviations of Computer
Anxiety Scores by Holland Type and Sex |
||||
|
|
Male |
|
Female |
|
|
Holland Type |
M |
SD |
M |
SD |
|
Realistic |
4.08 |
0.65 |
3.65 |
0.61 |
|
Investigative |
4.1 |
0.66 |
3.48 |
0.85 |
|
Artistic |
3.29 |
0.55 |
3.42 |
0.63 |
|
Social |
4 |
0.61 |
3.41 |
0.89 |
|
Enterprising |
3.51 |
1.79 |
3.27 |
0.73 |
|
Conventional |
3.5 |
0 |
- |
- |
Note:
1. Both Sex and Holland Type were significant
(p < .01).
2. A higher score indicates less anxiety.
3. Post hoc tests revealed Enterprising
and Artistic type significantly core anxious (p < .01) than Realistic types.
Enterprising students were also significantly more anxious (p < .01) than
Investigative types.
4. There were no Conventional female
students in this sample.
|
Table 2: Means and Standard Deviations of Computer Confidence
Scores by Holland Type and Sex |
||||
|
|
Male |
|
Female |
|
|
Holland Type |
M |
SD |
M |
SD |
|
Realistic |
4.03 |
0.66 |
3.54 |
0.56 |
|
Investigative |
3.97 |
0.64 |
3.45 |
0.69 |
|
Artistic |
3.19 |
0.53 |
3.23 |
0.69 |
|
Social |
3.86 |
0.53 |
3.27 |
0.69 |
|
Enterprising |
3.33 |
0.89 |
3.14 |
0.79 |
|
Conventional |
3.6 |
0 |
- |
- |
Note:
l. Both Holland Type and Sex were
significant (p <.01).
2. A higher score indicates more computer
confidence.
3. Post hoc tests indicated that Realistic students were significantly
(p < .01) more confident than Enterprsing,Artistic, and Social students.
Investigative students were also significantly yore confident (p < .01) than
Enterprising and Artistic students.
4. There were no Conventional females in
this sample.
|
Table 2: Means and Standard Deviations of Computer
Liking Scores by Holland Type and Sex |
||||
|
|
Male |
|
Female |
|
|
Holland Type |
M |
SD |
M |
SD |
|
Realistic |
3.66 |
0.78 |
3.24 |
0.66 |
|
Investigative |
3.81 |
0.64 |
3.24 |
0.83 |
|
Artistic |
2.53 |
0.53 |
3 |
0.71 |
|
Social |
3.64 |
0.7 |
3.03 |
0.83 |
|
Enterprising |
3.03 |
0.93 |
3 |
0.76 |
|
Conventional |
3.7 |
0 |
- |
- |
Note: