Counseling Center
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland
Student Perceptions of the
Campus Cultural Climate by Race
Julie R. Ancis, William E.
Sedlacek, & Jonathan J. Mohr
Research Report # 1-98
Counseling Center
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland
Student Perceptions of the
Campus Cultural Climate by Race
Julie R. Ancis, William E.
Sedlacek, & Jonathan J. Mohr
Research Report # 1-98
Five hundred and seventy-eight
African-American, Asian-American, Latino, and White undergraduates
responded to a questionnaire assessing perceptions and experiences of the
campus cultural climate. Results revealed significant differences among racial
and ethnic groups on multiple dimensions of the campus cultural climate.
African-American students consistently reported significantly more
interracial and interethnic conflict on campus; pressure to conform to
stereotypes; and less equitable treatment by faculty, staff, and teaching
assistants. White students' responses reflected limited perceptions of inter-racial/ethnic
tensions and a University climate characterized by respect for diversity.
Counseling and programmatic implications are presented.
Student Perceptions
4
Given the multicultural makeup of U.S. college and university campuses, it seems essential to examine differences in students' experiences of the campus cultural climate. Much of the research which has examined students' perceptions of the university climate has focused solely on one racial/ethnic group (typically Whites or African-Americans), has compared African-American students to their White counterparts, or has compared White students to a racially/ethnically heterogeneous group of students of color (e.g., Allen, 1987; 1992; Fleming, 1984; Follet, Andberg, & Hendel, 1982; Loo & Rolison, 1986; McClelland & Auster, 1990; Nettles, Thoeny, & Gosman, 1986). It can be expected that African-American, Asian-American, Latino, and White students posses different perceptions of the academic environment as a function of their unique historical background, cultural values, and adjustment experiences (Change, 1988; Hurtado, Carter, Spuler, 1996; Minatoya & Sedlacek, 1983). However, few studies have compared various racial and ethnic groups' perceptions of the campus cultural climate. Such information can be used to develop programs aimed at creating a university environment which fosters all students' academic and social potential.
The purpose of the present
study was to compare African-American, AsianAmerican, Latino, and White
students' perceptions and experiences of the campus cultural climate. In
contrast to previous investigations, the present study explored perceptions and
experiences regarding multiple dimensions of the campus cultural climate.
Participants
Participants were 578
undergraduates (307 first-year, 271 juniors) enrolled at a large mid-Atlantic
university. First-year students and juniors were targetted as they
represent a range of exposure to the university campus. Participant's self-reported
race/ethnicity was as follows: 136 African-Americans, 130 Asian-Americans,
77
Student Perceptions
5
Latinos, and 235 Whites. A total of 324 of the participants were female and 254 male; with approximately equal proportions of males and females of each racial and ethnic group. The mean age of participants was 20 years, with a range of 17 to 42 years.
Instrument
The Cultural Attitudes and
Climate Questionnaire (CACQ) is designed to measure students' perceptions and
experiences of the university racial and ethnic climate. Using a Likert-type
scale, students report their level of agreement with 100 statements regarding
the campus climate. Eleven factors were identified using principle axis factor
analysis and varimax rotation, accounting for 48% of the total variance. The 11
Factors are as follows: (1) Racial Tension (alpha = .73, perception and
experience of racial conflict on campus), (2) Cross-Cultural Comfort
(alpha = .73, comfort with racially/ethnicity similar and dissimilar faculty
and peers), (3) Diversity Awareness (alpha = .67, sensitivity to racial/ethnic
differences), (4) Racial Pressures (alpha = .60, pressure to conform to
racial/ethnic stereotypes), (5) Residence Hall Tension (1 item, perception of
interracial and interethnic conflict in residence halls), (6) Fair Treatment
(alpha = .74, experience of fair treatment by faculty, teaching assistants, and
students), (7) Faculty Racism (alpha = .77, experience of racist atmosphere
perpetuated by faculty), (8) Respect for Other Cultures (alpha = .62, faculty
and student respect for different racial and ethnic groups), (9) Support (alpha
= .63, experience of help and support from faculty, students, and teaching
assistants), (10) Comfort with own Culture (alpha = .55, comfort with own
racial/ethnic background), (11) Overall Satisfaction (alpha = .78, experience
of university environment as academically and socially rewarding).
Procedure
This study was conducted as
part of a campus diversity evaluation committee program. The university studied
had implemented extensive diversity programming in academic and nonacademic
areas for several years. The CACQ was mailed to 964
Student Perceptions
6
first and third year students using stratified random sampling to ensure sufficient racial and ethnic representation. Additional items pertaining to respondents' race, class and gender were included on the questionnaire to verify information on student records. Respondents returned completed anonymous questionnaires separately from postcards containing identifying information. A follow-up letter was mailed to each participant. Next, trained graduate students in education and psychology performed an additional follow-up with a minimum of three telephone calls to each participant, resulting in an overall return rate of 60%.
Preliminary Analyses
Because of the unequal
numbers of students in the different racial and ethnic groups, statistical
tests for homogeneity of variance were conducted. Levine tests indicated
heterogeneity of variance only for Factor 7 (Faculty Racism). However, it is
generally believed that differences in group variances are not large enough to
significantly distort ANOVA results when the ratio of maximum variance to
minimum variance is less than 4.0 (Howell, 1992). The ratio for Factor 7 was
2.62, suggesting that the heterogeneity of variance was not large enough to
compromise the validity of the ANOVA results.
Main Analyses
One-way ANOVAs were
employed to examine racial and ethnic group differences on each factor.
Significant differences between groups were determined using Tukey's HSD tests.
Given the number of comparisons conducted, an alpha level of .005 (.05/11
factors) was used to control for family-wise error.
The following results were significant at the .005 level (see Table 1). Significant differences emerged between racial/ethnic groups on Factors 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 11. For descriptive purposes, results related to general racial and ethnic climate concerns and overall satisfaction with the university will be presented first. Personal
Student Perceptions
7
experiences of campus racism will be presented next.
Finally, results related to individual comfort level with racially/ethnically
similar and dissimilar persons on campus will be presented third.
Perceptions of general
racial and ethnic climate. African-American students perceived and experienced significantly
more racial conflict on campus and racial/ethnic separation than Asian-American
and White students (Factor 1, F(3, 565) _ 8.46, p < .0001). African-American,
Asian-American, and Latino students perceived significantly more
interracial tension in the residence halls than White students (Factor 5, F(3,
568) = 16.64, p < .0001). Alternatively, White students reported
significantly greater faculty and student respect for different racial and
ethnic groups than African American and Asian-American students (Factor
8, F(3, 569) = 10.99, p < .0001). Finally, White students experienced
significantly greater overall satisfaction with the university compared to
African-American and Asian-American students (Factor 11, F(3, 570)
= 6.11, p < .0004).
Personal experiences of
campus racism. African-American, Asian-American, and Latino students were
significantly more likely than their White counterparts to experience pressure
to conform to racial and ethnic stereotypes regarding their academic
performance and behavior, as well as minimize overt racial/ethnic group
characteristics (e.g., language and dress) in order to fit in (Factor 4, F(3,
557) = 39.09, p < .0001). Asian-American and African-American
students experienced this pressure to a significantly greater degree than
Latino students. African-American and AsianAmerican students reported a
significantly greater degree of faculty racism compared to White students; with
African-American students reporting significantly more faculty racism
than Latino students (Factor 7, F(3, 571) = 9.16, p < .0001). White students
similarly reported significantly fairer treatment by faculty, teaching
assistants, and students compared to African-American and Asian-American
students (Factor 6, F(3, 571) = 6.21, p < .0004).
Student Perceptions
8
Racial/ethnic comfort. African-American and
Latino students expressed a greater degree of comfort with faculty and students
who were racially and ethnically similar, as well as different, compared to
White students (Factor 2, F(3, 566) = 4.37, p < .005).
Results indicated that
significant racial and ethnic group differences exist with regard to
perceptions and experiences of the campus cultural climate. AfricanAmericans
consistently reported more negative experiences compared to AsianAmerican,
Latino, and White students. Specifically, African-American students
experienced greater racial/ethnic hostility; greater pressure to conform to
stereotypes; less equitable treatment by faculty, staff, and teaching
assistants; and more faculty racism than their Asian-American, Latino,
and White counterparts. This is consistent with previous research, indicating
that African-American undergraduates perceive and experience
significantly more racism on campus than their non African-American
counterparts (Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Hurtado, 1992; LaSure, 1993; Sedlacek,
1987). The present study highlighted the particular dimensions of these
students' experiences.
Asian-American and
Latino students also reported experiences of stereotyping and prejudice in the
form of limited respect and unfair treatment by faculty, teaching assistants,
and students; interracial tension in residence halls; and pressure to conform
to stereotypes. However, compared to other non-White racial/ethnic groups
on campus, Latinos experienced the least racism and experienced a campus
climate relatively free of racial and ethnic conflict. Several factors may
account for these findings. First, at the university from which the sample was
drawn, Latihos comprised approximately 6% of the undergraduate student body,
compared to 14% for AfricanAmerican students and 12% for Asian-American
students. The limited number of Latino students on this campus may prevent them
from being perceived as a threat or
Student Perceptions
9
competitors for resources, and thus less subject to discriminatory behavior. Different results may be found on campuses with a larger Latino enrollment and with more overt anti-immigrant or anti-ethnic minority sentiment. Results may also reflect the fact that Latinos are considered an ethnic group rather than a racial group. The lack of ostensible, physical, racial characteristics may render many Latinos less subject to discrimination than other minorities, such as Asian-American and African-American students (see Helms, 1995). Alternatively, given the need to negotiate the rules of conduct of Anglo-American culture in U.S. colleges and universities, including use of the English language, Latinos who attend and persist in college may be more acculturated than their peers who do not attend college (Baron & Constantine, 1997). As such, they may report a greater level of adjustment in college and university settings than their non-acculturated peers. This is consistent with previous metaanalytic research demonstrating that Latino student's familiarity and comfort with Anglo culture is positively related to less stress experienced in predominantly Anglo universities (Quintana, Vogel, & Ybarra, 1991).
It is also interesting to
note that of all groups, Latinos reported the most comfort with their own
cultural background as well as with individuals who are culturally different.
These student's acceptance of self and others may serve to buffer the negative
effects of discrimination. In fact, positive attitudes toward culturally
different others and a secure ethnic identity seem to be associated with lower
levels of stress on campus among Latino students (Quintana et al., 1991).
White students consistently
reported less racial tension, few expectations to conform to stereotypic
behavior, an experience of being treated fairly, a climate characterized by
respect for diversity, and the most overall satisfaction. Despite reports of
interracial tension and discrimination on campus by students of color who
comprise approximately one-third of the study body, White students seem
relatively immune from such a hostile climate. This reality was most obvious in
examining
Student Perceptions
10
differences on Factor 5 (Residence Hall Tension). All groups, with the exception of White students, reported interracial tension in residence halls. White students not only experienced limited discrimination, they also seemed to lack a recognition that interracial tensions and conflict exist for a significant portion of the student body. This last finding is consistent with previous studies which demonstrate significant discrepancies between White and minority students perceptions of interracial tension and university support for students of color (Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Loo & Rolison, 1986; McClelland & Auster, 1990).
Counseling Implications
Counselor awareness of
students' particular perceptions and unique experiences is primary to providing
counseling services which meet the needs of a diverse student body (Bishop,
1990; Stone & Archer, 1990). An understanding of student's unique
experiences provides the basis for ethical and accurate assessment procedures
(APA, 1993; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). The results of this study
suggest that assessment of race- and ethnicity- related perceptions
of the campus climate may prove to be an important component of facilitating
the college adjustment of students of color. For example, counselors may want
to routinely assess for the degree to which African-American student's
academic adjustment and psychosocial functioning is impacted by expectations to
conform to racial and ethnic stereotypes. Similarly, the relationship between
experiences of residence hall tension and one's academic and social adjustment
may be a critical area of assessment for Latino, African-American, and
Asian-American students.
An understanding of the
particular experiences of African-American, AsianAmerican, Latino, and
White college students may also influence the development of accurate and
effective interventions. Counseling strategies which both increase student's
ability to effectively respond to racial and ethnic stereotyping, as well as
maintain or increase one's academic self-efficacy to buffer the impact of
denigrating
Student Perceptions
11
expectations and discouraging feedback, may be indicated. Similarly, counselors may facilitate African-American and Asian-American student's exploration and pursuit of alternative sources of assistance and support as they report a greater degree of faculty racism compared to their peers. Educational approaches which encourage students to pursue appropriate venues for reporting racist experiences and seeking redress may also be indicated.
Programming Implications
The results suggest a need
for university programming which focuses on creating an accepting and
comfortable campus climate where biases are challenged and differences are
understood and appreciated. White students' lack of awareness or denial
regarding racial and ethnic intolerance may result in their tendency to
discredit reports of bias and discrimination by students of color. Moreover,
their lack of awareness may result in resentments toward students of color for
perceived "rewards." Such misunderstandings and misperceptions serve
to foster interracial and interethnic conflict.
Campus programming to
increase White students' awareness of both subtle and overt manifestations of
bias could include providing information about the sociocultural history and
background of diverse groups on campus. Incorporating such information into
orientation programs can promote cultural awareness and sensitivity at the
onset of students' university careers. This may reduce stereotyping which results
from a limited understanding of others, as well as minimize pressures placed on
students of color to conform to expectations or "hide" their
differences. Programming efforts which facilitate contact between students of
diverse backgrounds, such as cooperative learning activities, may also be
employed to increase White student's comfort level with racially/ethnically
diverse faculty and students and promote positive university environments
(Brewer & Miller, 1984; Pate, 1988).
Student Perceptions
12
Counselor educators' unique training in preventative approaches to healthy development is relevant to promoting student's sense of connection with the university. Actively supportive, nondiscriminatory campus environments are associated with greater satisfaction in college, better adjustment, and persistence through graduation. This is particularly the case for students of color (MacKay & Kuh, 1994; Kuh, Schuh, Whiff, & Associates, 1991; Nettles, Thoeny, & Gorman, 1986). Programming efforts must thus target potential areas of stress for students of color. One such area includes faculty racism. The significance of positive and supportive relationships between faculty, administrators, and students to the academic achievement of students of color has been demonstrated (Watson & Kuh, 1996). Outreach efforts which increase faculty and staff awareness of both subtle and more overt manifestations of prejudice and race-based discrimination is necessary to increasing student's comfort level both in and out of the classroom. Faculty orientation programs may include workshops on instructional equity. Assessment of equitable educational approaches may be incorporated into annual teaching evaluations. In addition, coordinating mentor programs which match new students with ethnically and racially similar faculty, staff, and students may provide students with needed academic and social support (Thile & Matt, 1995).
Programming efforts
ultimately must send a message to students that exposure to differences is
enriching, leads to flexibility in thought and action, and results in personal
and professional advantages in an increasingly interdependent and diverse
world.
Limitations
Several limitations of this
study exist. The study was conducted on one university campus and the results
may not be generalizable to demographically different campuses, such as those
with a larger Latino student body or one which is more racially and ethnically
homogeneous. However, the fact that results were
Student Perceptions
13
obtained from students attending a single
institution, as opposed to multiple institutions, strengthens the internal
validity of the study.
In addition, it must be recognized that existing differences within racial and ethnic groups may impact perceptions and experiences of campus cultural climate. Such individual differences include level of racial and/or ethnic identity, level of acculturation, and socio-economic status (Helms, 1994; Padilla, 1980; Phinney, 1990). Relatedly, gender differences may influence results. For example, women of color who experience both racism and sexism, often report exposure to multiple forms of oppression which differ from those experienced by their male peers (Carter, Pearson, & Shavlik, 1987; Comas-Diaz & Greene, 1994; Fleming, 1983). Moreover, gender differences may vary within each racial/ethnic group. Future investigations may explore the relationship between these individual differences and students' perceptions and experiences of the campus cultural climate.
Despite the above
limitations, the results enrich our understanding of students' experiences of
the multiple dimensions of the campus racial and ethnic climate. Tailoring
campus services and programs to meet the unique needs of a diverse student body
is clearly indicated.
Student Perceptions
14
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|
Table 1: Racial and Ethnic Group Differences |
|||||||||
|
|
Af.-Am. (n=136) |
As. - Am. (n=130) |
Latino (n=77) |
White (n=235) |
Significant Differences |
||||
|
Factors |
M |
SD |
M |
SD |
M |
SD |
M |
SD |
|
|
1. Racial Tension |
15.31 |
3.48 |
13.42 |
3.65 |
14.03 |
3.6 |
13.43 |
3.82 |
AF>A, W |
|
2. Cross-Cultural Comfort |
27.95 |
3.92 |
27.3 |
3.72 |
28.21 |
3.72 |
26.67 |
4.31 |
AF, L>W |
|
3. Diversity Awareness |
10.25 |
1.94 |
10.9 |
2.22 |
10.59 |
2.07 |
10.6 |
2.25 |
|
|
4. Racial Pressures |
11.33 |
2.74 |
10.92 |
2.81 |
9.41 |
2.9 |
8.35 |
2.96 |
AF, A, L>W; AF, A>L |
|
5. Residence Hall Tension |
3.14 |
1.51 |
3.34 |
1.66 |
3.01 |
1.61 |
2.3 |
1.41 |
AF, A, L>W |
|
6. Fair Treatment |
11.71 |
1.76 |
11.74 |
1.94 |
12.19 |
1.61 |
12.43 |
1.91 |
W>AF, A |
|
7. Faculty Racism |
3.44 |
2.02 |
3.15 |
1.73 |
2.74 |
1.29 |
2.61 |
1.25 |
AF, A>W; AF>L |
|
8. Respect for Other
Cultures |
7.68 |
1.79 |
8.12 |
1.71 |
8.18 |
1.8 |
8.76 |
1.86 |
W>AF, A |
|
9. Lack of Support |
6.6 |
2.07 |
6.95 |
2.29 |
6.62 |
1.97 |
6.63 |
2.36 |
|
|
10. Comfort with Own
Culture |
7.42 |
1.68 |
7.53 |
1.62 |
7.88 |
1.51 |
7.27 |
1.86 |
|
|
11. Overall Satisfaction |
17.96 |
1.19 |
17.88 |
3.24 |
18.74 |
3.63 |
19.21 |
3.43 |
W>AF, A |