COUNSELING
CENTER
COLLEGE
PARK MARYLAND
THE VALIDITY
AND RELIABILITY OF A NONCOGNITIVE
MEASURE
OF MINORITY STUDENT RETENTION
William
E. Sedlacek
Research
Report # 3-82
The
computer time for this project has been supported through
the
facilities of the Computer Science Center of the
University
of Maryland
UNIVERSITY
OF MARYLAND
COLLEGE
PARK, MARYLAND
THE
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A NONCOGNITIVE MEASURE OF MINORITY
STUDENT
RETENTION
William
E. Sedlacek
Research
Report # 3-8Z
SUMMARY
The purpose of this report is to present some evidence for
hour the use of noncognitive variables in admissions will increase minority
student retention. The report includes the presentation of a brief instrument
which has reliability and validity evidence supporting its use in the selection
and retention of minority students. The instrument measures eight noncognitive
variables: Positive self-concept; Understands and deals with racism; Realistic
self-appraisal; Prefers long-range goals to short-term or
immediate needs; Availability of a strong support person; Successful leadership
experience; Demonstrated community service; and Non-traditional knowledge
acquired in a field.
In recent years there has been much concern over student
retention in higher education, particularly minority student retention (Lea,
Sedlacek & Stewart, 1973). The retention rates for minority students tend
to-be lower than for white students (Astin, 1975; Avakian, MacKinney and
Allen, 1982; Sedlacek and Pelham, 1376), and are lowest in predominantly white
institutions (Goodrich, 1378; Sedlacek and Webster, 1978).
The purpose of this article, will be to present some
evidence fox how :the use of noncognitive variables in admissions will increase
minority student retention. The article will include the presentation of a
brief instrument which has reliability and validity evidence supporting its use
in the selection and retention of black students.
One reason why we must consider race or ethnic group in admission
is to achieve equality. It is often argued that you don't or can't achieve
equality by considering differences. The kind of equality we axe after in
admissions is equality of information, not equality of process. We want the
best information we can get on every applicant. It can be argued that our
current system of gathering applicant data favors white, middle class
applicants. How? Let's start with the application form itself. Studies have
shown that the typical minority applicant is not as sure just what is being
asked, and is less likely to know Just how to "play the game" and
supply the information the school really wants (Sedlacek, Merritt and Brooks,
1375). Minority persons are also less likely to have family, friends, or peers
who have dealt with the admissions process who can advise them.
Minority students may be reluctant or tentative in
completing the application form; and universities that have done the best job
of increasing black enrollment over a five-year period have tended to
streamline or reduce the number and types of forms required in their admissions
procedure (Sedlacek,
2.
Merritt and Brooks, 1975). Thus the application form. is
designed to elicit information fairly efficiently on applicants with
traditional, white, middle class experiences in the society. It can be
documented that the experiences and life styles of typical minority applicants
are different (Borgen, 1970; Sedlacek and Brooks, 1976), and that we would
gather data differently if we were to design a form specifically to admit
minorities. For instance, a minority applicant who has shown leadership in a community
project rather than the biology club might not be as likely to write it on the
application because of the way the question is worded and his/her lack of information
on what is appropriate to include.
Aside from the application form, we must consider that the
typical tests employed in education are not as useful in predicting or
diagnosing minority student potential performance as they are In predicting
middle class, white student performances (Bailey, 1978) .
How did this happen? The best explanation appears to be
that the reinforcement system developed in our society for minority people is
more capricious than it is on the average for whites. That is, there is not as
tight a link between performance and outcome for minorities as there is for
whites (Sedlacek and Brooks, 1976). There are studies that show that minorities
do not tend to have the same control over their lives as do whites (Epps, 1969:
Gurin et al., 1969). More whites realize that if they do X, they will get y,
and so forth. For example, whites are more likely to feel "If I study
hard, I will get good grades and go on to the next step." This is not
nearly as clear for minorities. Several studies indicate that teachers tend to
have lower expectations for minority student performance (Rosenthal and
Jacobson, 1965; Rubovits and Maehr, 1973). This is more likely to result in
higher or lower grades that would be expected, either of which are bad for
3.
minorities trying to develop a link or relationship
between what they do and what happens to then. This kind of grade discrepancy
has been found in several studies (Cleary, 1968; Pfeifer and Sedlacek, 1971;
Thomas and Stanley, 1969), and helps to explain why grades don't predict
minority student performance better. It is particularly difficult to diagnose
or predict minority male performance. Some sociological literature supports the
argument, that the majority culture tends to control minority culture primarily
through controlling males (Verma and Bagley, 1975).
Since this link of behavior and reinforcement is better
and stronger for white applicants, we don't have to work too hard to obtain
additional applicant information on whites. If a white, in a white oriented
system using white culturally based predictors, gets high grades, we know
something about the motivation of that student. If he/she were president of a
fraternity/sorority, we know that shows leadership. But for minority applicants,
we are not as sure about their cultures. Astin (1975), in a national study of
dropouts, found that blacks who were able to demonstrate knowledge gained in
nontraditional ways through credit-by-examination were less likely
to drop out than blacks who did not take credit-by-examination. The
increase in student retention associated with demonstrating knowledge in this
non-traditional way was more than twice as great for blacks as for
whites.
Sedlacek and Webster (1978) found that schools that tended
to consider race related variables tended to have better retention of minority
students. They alto found that private universities tended to have better
retention records than public universities.
Studies have shown that background, interest, attitudinal
and motivational variables are related to minority student success, but are not
necessarily useful-in predicting the academic success of white students
(e.g., Bailey, 1978;
4.
DiCesare, Sedlacek and Brooks, 1972; Gurin et al., 1969;
Horowitz et al., 1972; Lockett, 1950; Lownan and spuck 1975; Ferry, 1972;
Pfeifer and Sedlacek, 1970, 1974; Sedlacek, 1977; Sedlacek and Brooks, 1972;
Tracey and. Sedlacek, (in press).
Sedlacek and brooks (1976), in reviewing the noncognitive
predictor studies for minorities, concluded that there were seven key
noncognitive variables:
1. Positive self-concept. Confidence, strong
"self" feeling, strength of character, determination, independence. A
strong self-concept seems important for minorities at all, educational levels
where it has been investigated. The minority student who feels confident of
"making it" through school is more likely to survive and graduate.
Although minority students have had, to battle incredible obstacles and
setbacks even to reach the point of applying to college or a professional
school, they need even greater determination to continue. Determination is needed
precisely because they come from a different cultural background than most of
the students and faculty members they will encounter in school.
In addition to the usual school pressures, the minority
student typically must handle cultural. biases and learn to bridge his or her
past culture and the prevailing one. DiCesare, Sedlacek and Brooks (1972) found
that blacks who stayed in college and adjusted to these obstacles were usually absolutely
certain they would obtain their degree, in contrast to those who left school.
Epps (1969) found that a strong self-concept was directly related to
black high school students' success. Sedlacek and Brooks (1972) also found this
to be true of minority students in special programs at the university level.
Astin (1952) also found self-concept important for minority student
success.
Pfeifer and Sedlacek (1974) noted that this goad self-concept
may take a
form whereby successful minority students appear
considerably different
fray their white counterparts. They found that blacks who
get high grades
tend to have very atypical personality profiles vis-ŕ-vis
whites who get
high grades, according to norms based on white students.
Thus on some
measures the opposite use of the same predictor will
select the best black
and white students.
The successful minority student, however, is more likely
to be inclined toward, and experienced in, "going against the grain,"
as well as being atypical. Conversely, blacks who look like typically
successful white students on these personality measures will not do well
academically. Thus there is good evidence that important cultural differences
operate between blacks and whites in the manner in which the self-concept
is operationalized.
2. Understands and deals with racism. A realist,
based on personal experiences of racism. Committed to fighting to improve the
existing system. Not submissive to existing wrongs, nor hateful of society, nor
a "cop out." Able to handle a racist system. Asserts that the school
has a role or duty to fight racism. Racism can take many forms. For example, an
admissions committee that has good intentions but uses inappropriate predictors
to select minority students is committing an unconscious act of racism. This is
racism because it results in negative outcomes for minority students who are
incorrectly selected, and it is institutional racism because it is the result
of collective action (see Sedlacek and Brooks, 1976).
Research has consistently shown that minority students who
understand racism and are prepared to deal with it perform better academically
and are more likely to adjust to a predominantly white school (Barbarin, 1981;
DiCesare, Sedlacek and Brooks, 1972; Gurin, Gurin, Lao and Beattie, 1969).
3. Realistic self-appraisal. Recognizes and
accepts any academic or
6.
background deficiencies and works hard at self-development.
Recognizes need to broaden. one's indivi1uality. Realism in self-appraisal
by minorities does not connote cultural, or racial deficiency or inferiority.
However, institutional racism results in inferior education. and academic
background deficiencies among many minorities. The minority applicant who
recognizes this and is prepared to act upon. it individually, or with the
school's help, will make a better student. Again the studies on internal-external
control support this point Gurin et al., 1969; Sedlacek and Brooks, 1976).
Additionally, DiCesare et al (1972) found that blacks who
have a mere
realistic view of themselves and society are more likely
to remain in school.
4. Prefers 1ong-range goals to short-term or
immediate needs. Understands and is willing to accept deferred
gratification. Since role models are unavailable and the reinforcement system
has been relatively random for them, many minorities have difficulty
understanding the relationship between current work and the ultimate practice
of their professions. The earlier discussion about the "culture
shock" faced by minority students supports the usefulness of this
predictor.
In other words, since black students tend to face a
greater culture shock than white students in
adjusting to a white-oriented campus culture, we are not as sure
about how blacks will perform at first as we are about whites. However, by the
tine of their sophomore year, blacks are about as predictable as whites.
The minority student who is. not ready to accept delayed
reinforcement, when combined with the other adjustments discussed here, will be
in a great deal of trouble in college.
Availability of a strong support person. Has a
person of strong influence who provides advice. In times of crisis the
successful minority
7.
student tends to have a strong individual in his or her
background to turn to. This individual may be in the immediate family, but is
often a relative or a community worker. Many minority students do not have the
"props" or support to fall back upon that whites typically have. For
instance, a 'black student who is about to enter college may not have members
its his or her immediate family or neighborhood friends who have been to
college or understand the "ins and outs" of the system, which most
educated whites take for granted. As noted earlier, whites, individually and
collectively through institutions, do not usually have high expectations of
minorities and therefore are not geared to pushing a. minority student to seek
education.
Because of random reinforcement of the relationship
between individual effort and positive outcome, it may take relatively little
to make a minority student drop out or fail. school. If a white student drops
out, there are generally many forces in white society to bring him or her back
into the educational system. But the minority student may drop out and never be
heard from again.
Tie minority student who has at least one strong support
person in his or her background is more likely to get through the many and very
difficult adjustments required of most minorities in a predominantly white
school.
6. Successful leadership experience. Has shown
ability to organize and influence others within his or her cultural-racial
context. The key here is non-traditional evidence of leadership among
minority students. Application forms and interviews are typically slanted in
directions unlikely to yield much about the background of the minority student.
They typical white applicant knows how to "plays the game," sad will
have "taken up" and then be sure to list, a wide variety of offices
held in traditional school organizations. Many minority students will not have
had the time or the inclination for such
8.
activities.
The coat promising students, however, may have shown their
leadership in less typical ways, such as working in their communities, or
through their church, or even as a street-gang leader in high school. It
is important. to pursue the culturally relevant activities of the applicants
rather than to treat them as if they come from a white middle class
environment. If the applicant succeeded in his or her culture and is now ready
to "take on" college, this is evidence that the student has the
potential to succeed.
7. Demonstrated community service. Has shown
evidence of contributing to his or her community. This predictor is closely related
to the leadership experiences discussed above, since many of the successful
leadership activities of minorities may be performed in their own communities.
However, community service goes beyond this in providing evidence of interest
in and understanding of one's background and willingness to help and serve
one's people. If minority students reject their background, it is likely they
will have trouble in personal areas, such as self-concept, understanding
racism, and realistic self-appraisal.
The standard application blank and admission interview
typically do not explore different cultural backgrounds and tend to miss a
great deal of data in selecting minority students. A school that is interested
in optimizing its minority student selection procedures must have knowledge of
the cultural background of a minority student and the implications of urban-rural
differences, and must recognize that many minority applicants are cot sure
about what information right by of interest to the school.
An eighth variable hypothesized by the writer is labeled Non-traditional
Knowledge Acquired in a Field. It is defined as unusual and/or culturally related
ways of obtaining information arid demonstrating knowledge. The field
9.
itself may be non-traditional. Astin (1975), as
noted earlier, provides evidence for the possible utility of the variable in
predicting minority student retention.
Exhibit I shows a short questionnaire designed to measure the
eight variables discussed above. Exhibit II provides a system to score the
questionnaire. Tracey and Sedlacek (in press) did a reliability and validity
study of seven of the eight variables (all but Non-traditional Knowledge)
and found test-retest reliability coefficients ranging from .70 to .94,
and interjudge agreement correlations ranging from .83 to 1.00 for open-ended
items. Lockett (1980) reported coefficient alpha reliabilities ranging from .54
to .73 on a modified version of the questionnaire. Tracey and Sedlacek also
showed that the variables tend to be independent of one another, using
principal components factor analysis.
The exact relationship of the questionnaire to collegiate
success varies between blacks and whites. For whites, the variables
significantly add to the prediction of grades, while for blacks, they are
related to both grades and enrollment status. Tracey and Sedlacek (in press)
further found that the use of the non-cognitive variables alone (without
SAT scores) yielded a significant higher correlation with black student
retention than did SAT scores alone. They also demonstrated the importance of
predicting criteria beyond the freshman year. Studies which predict only
freshman grades tend to give different results. and are more likely to be
unfair to minorities (Farver, Sedlacek and Brooks, 1975; Kalingall, 1971).
Lockett (1980), using a modification of the noncognitive
questionnaire presented here, found that the variables correlated with grades
and satisfaction with the college environment for the black students. Given
this reliability and validity, the non-cognitive variables appear to be
useful in increasing
10.
minority student retention.
Among others, the Association of American Medical Colleges
(Prieto et al., 1975; Sedlacek and Prieto, 1952) and the Mexican American
Legal. Defense and Educational Fund (Brown and Marenco, 1980) recommend the use
of the noncognitive variables discussed here. Additionally, Brown and Marenco
offer a system of scoring the noncognitive variables which is particularly
applicable to law schools.
The variables also could be of value after admission.
Students could be given the questionnaire before matriculation, and those
students lacking in the dimensions that are related to collegiate success could
be identified. Programs aimed specifically at particular variables for
particular students could then be initiated. Thus, efforts could be optimally
employed with the best chance of retaining students, given the particular
resources of a given institution. The Counseling Center at the University of
Maryland, College Park, (UMCP) has planned and is currently implementing an
intervention for black students based on these noncognitive variables. The
intervention is part of an overall program of small sample research-based
attempts to reduce student attrition (Boyd, Magoon & Leonard, 1952). If the
small scale intervention works, it will be implemented for all students at
UMCP.
11.
Astin, A.W. Preventing students from dropping out. San
Francisco:
Jossey-Bass,
1975.
Astin, A.W. Minorities in American Higher Education. San
Francisco:
Jossey-Bass,
1982.
Avakian, N.A., Mac Kinney, A.C., and Allen, G.R. Race and
sex differences in
student
retention at an urban university. College and University, 1982, 57, 160-165.
Bailey,R.N. Minority Admissions. Lexington, Mass:
Heath, 1978.
Barbarin, Q.A. (Ed.) Institutional racism and community
competence.
Bethesda,
Maryland: National Institute of Mental Health, 1981.
Borgen, F.H. Able black Americans in college: Entry and
freshman
experiences. Merit
Scholarship Corporation Research Reports, 1970, 6, #2.
approach to
attrition/retention in higher education. Journal of Collie Student Personnel, 1982, 23, 390-394.
Brown, S.E. and Marenco, E., Jr., Law School admissions
study San Francisco:
Mexican-American
Legal Defense and Educational Fund, 1980.
Cleary, T. A. Test bias: Predictions of grades of Negro
and white students
in integrated
colleges. Journal of Educational Measurement, 1968, 5, 115-121
DiCesare, A., Sedlacek, W.E., and Brooks, G.C., Jr.
Nonintellectual
correlates of
black student. attrition. Journal of College Student Personnel, 1972, 13, 319-324:
Epps, E.G. Correlates of academic achievement among
northern and southern
urban Negro students.
Journal of Social Issues, 1969, 25, 5-13.
Farver, A. S., Sedlacek, W.E.; and Brooks, G.C., Jr.
Longitudinal
predictions of
university grades for blacks and whites. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, 1975, 7, 243-250.
Goodrich, A. A data-driven minority student
retention model for faculty and
administrators
in predominantly white institutions. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American College Personnel
Association, Detroit, Mi., March,
1978.
Gurin, P., Gurin, G., Lao, R., and Beattie, M. Internal-External
control in
the motivational
dynamics of Negro youth. Journal of Social Issues, 1969, 3, 29-53.
12.
References
(continued)
Horowitz, J.L., Sedlacek, W.E., aid Brooks, G.C., jr.
Correlates of black and white
university student grades beyond the freshman year. Cultural Study Center Research Report 7-72, College
Park, Md.: University of Maryland 1972.
Kallingal, A. The prediction of grades for black and white students at
Michigan State
University. Journal of Educational Measurement, 1971, 8, 264-265.
Lea, D.H., Sedlacek, W.E., and Stewart, S.S Problems in
retention research
in higher
education. NSAPA (National Association of Student Personnel Administrators) Journal, 1979, 17, #12
Lockett, G. C. A study of traditional, measures and
nontraditional measures
used to edict
the success of black college students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia,
:980.
disadvantaged
Mexican-American. Journal of College Student Personnel, 1975, 16, 40-43.
Perry, F., Jr. Selected variables related to success of
black freshman
students at the
University of Missouri-Columbia. Unpublished dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1972.
Pfeifer, C.M., Jr. and Sedlacek, W.E. Nonintellectual
correlates of black
and white
students grades at the University of Maryland. Cultural Study Center Research Report # 3-70,
College Park, MD: University of Maryland,
1970.
Pfeifer, C.M., Jr. and Sedlacek, W.E. The validity of
academic predictors
for black and
white students at a predominantly white university. Journal of Educational Measurement, 1971, 8, 253-261.
Pfeifer, C.M., Jr. and Sedlacek, W.E. Predicting black
student grades with
nonintellectual
measures. Journal of Negro Education, 1974, 43, 67-76.
Prieto, D.O., Bashook, P.G., D'costa, A.G., Elliott, P.R.,
Jarecky, R.K.,
Kahrabrah, B.,
Leaven, W.F., and Sedlacek, W.E. Simulated Minority Admission Exercise Workbook. Washington, D.C.; Association of American Medical Colleges, 1978.
Rosenthal, R. anal Jacobson, L. Self-fulfilling
prophecies in the classroom:
Teachers'
expectations as unintended determinants of pupils' intellectual competence. In Deutsch, M., Katz, 1., and Jensen,
A.R. (Eds.) Social class, race and
psychological development New York: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston, 1968.
Rubovitz, P.C. and Maehr, M.L. Pygmalion black and
white. Journal of
Personality
and Social Psychology,1973, 25, 210-218.
13.
References
(continued)
Sedlacek, W.E. Should higher education students be
admitted differentially
by race and sex?
The evidence Journal of the National Association of College Admissions Counselors, 1977,
22, # 1, 22-24.
Sedlacek, W.E. and Brooks, G.C., Jr. Predictors of
academic success for
university
students in special programs. Cultural Study Center Research Report # 4-72, College Park,
MD.: University of Maryland, 1972.
Sedlacek, W.E. and Brooks, G.C., Jr. Racism in American
education: A model
for change.
Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1976.
of universities
successful and unsuccessful in enrolling blacks over a five year period. Journal of College Student Personnel,
1975, 15, 57-63.
Sedlacek, W.E. and Pelham, J.C. Minority admissions to
large universities: A
national survey.
Journal of Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, 1976, 4, 4 2, 53-63.
Admissions
Exercise. Journal of Medical Education. 19$2, 57, 119-120.
Sedlacek, W.E. and Webster, D.W. Admission and retention
of minority
students in
large universities. Journal of College Student Personnel, 1978. 19, 242-248.
Thomas, C.L. and Stanley, J. Effectiveness of high school grades
for
predicting
college grades of black students: A review and discussion. Journal of Educational Measurement,
1969, 6, 203-215.
Tracey, T.J: and Sedlacek, W.E. Noncognitive variables in
predicting
academic success
by race. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, (in press).
Verma, G.K. and Bagley, C. Race and education across
cultures. London,
England
Heinemann, 1975.
EXHIBIT I
ADMISSIONS QUESTIONNAIRE ASSESSING EIGHT NONCOGNITIVE
VARIABLES
Please circle your responses to the following items:
1. How much education do you expect 3. What do you feel is the
MAIN reason to get in your lifetime? there are few blacks at the University
of Maryland, College Park?
1. College, but less than a
bachelor’s
degree 1. Blacks prefer to go to
black
2. B.A. or equivalent colleges
3. 1 or 2 years of graduate 2. The University discourages then
or professional
study from coming because of its tout;
4. Doctor of Philosophy or academic reputation
Doctor of
Education 3. The University’s racist
practice
5. Doctor of Medicine discourage them from coming
6. Doctor of Dental Surgery 4. The University's racist image
7. Bachelor of Law discourages them
8. Bachelor of Divinity 5.
Don't know
9. Other 6. Other
2. About 50% of university
students 4. Please. list thee goals that typically leave before receiving a you
have right now:
degree. If this
should happen to
you, which of
the following do you 1.
think would be
the MOST LIKELY 2.
cause? 3.
1. Absolutely
certain that I will
obtain a degree
2. To accept a
good job
3. To enter
military service
4. It would cost
more than my
family or I could afford
5. Please list three things that
you are proud of having done
5. Marriage
6. Disinterest
in study 1.
7. Lack of
academic ability 2.
8. Inefficient
reading or other 3.
study skills
9. Other
Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree
with each of the following items respond to the statements below with your
feelings at present or with your expectations of how things-will be here.
Write in your answers on the space to the left of each item.
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
Strongly Agree |
Agree |
Neutral |
Disagree |
Strongly Disagree |
6. The University should use its influence to improve
social conditions in the State.
7. It should not be very hard to get a B (3.0) average at
UMCP,
8. I get easily discouraged when I try to do something and
it doesn't work.
9. I am sometimes looked up to by others.
10. If I run into
problems concerning school, I have someone who would listen to me and help me.
11. There is no use
in doing things for people, you only find that you get it in the neck in the
long run.
12. In the group
where I am comfortable, I am often looked to as leader.
13. I expect to have
a harder time than most students at UMCP.
14. Once I start
something, I finish it.
15. When I believe
strongly in something, I act on it.
16. I am as skilled
academically as the average applicant to UMCP.
17. People can
pretty easily change me even though I thought my mind was already made up on
the subject.
18. My friends and
relatives don't feel I should go to college.
19. List offices held and/or groups belonged to in high
school or in your community.
EXHIBIT II
SCORING KEY* FOR NONCOGNITIVE ADMISSIONS QUESTIONNAIRE'
William E. Sedlacek
QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS
1 Use to score for
Self-Concept (Variable I)
Option 1 = 1; 2 -
2; 3 = 3; 4 through 8 = 4; Score 9 as
closest to 1, 2,
3, or 4 (by your judgment).
2 Use to score for
Self-Concept (I) and Self-Appraisal (II)
Option. 1 = 2; 2
through 9 = 1.
3 Use to score for
Racism (III)
Options 1, 2, 5
or 6 = l; 3 and 4 = 2.
4 Use to score for
Long-Range Goals (IV) and Knowledge Acquired
in a Field
(VIII)
A. Options for Long-Range Goals:
Scale Values: Options:
3 = Consistent
evidence of planning and future
orientation
over a long time, e.g., "As a
freshman,
I figured I had better study if I
wanted
to get into law (or whatever)."
"Realized
I had to learn X procedure on the
job
before I could get promoted," etc.
2 = Some
recognition of long-term goals, but no
long-term evidence, or mixed
evidence.
1 = No
evidence of long-term planning. Looks at
issues
in immediate terms, unprepared for
future.
B. Options for
Knowledge Acquired in a Field:
3 = Behavioral
evidence of activity and interest
in field of interest for some time.
Interest
may be
through one's culture, bettering one's
culture
through working in the field. Allow
for non-traditional
views of field of interest
2 = Some
behavioral interests in the field, but
not
strong or long-term.
1 = No
evidence of interest in the field, or
perhaps
avoidance of such issues.
For items 6 through 18, positive (+) items are scored as
is. Negative (-) items are reversed, so that 1=5, 2=4, 3=3, 4=2, and:
5=1. A shortcut is to subtract all negative item responses from 6.
QUESTIONNAIRE
6 - (negative)Use to score for Racism
(III)
7 -
Use to score for Realistic Self-Appraisal (II)
8 + (positive)Use to score for ho-Range
Goals (IV)
9 - Use
to score for Leadership (VI)
10 - Use
to score for Availability of Strong Support (V)
11 + Use
to score for Community Service (VII)
12 - Use
to score for Leadership (VI)
13 + Use
to score for Racism (III)
14 - Use
to score for Long Range Goals (IV)
15 - Use
to score for Positive Self-Concept (I)
16 - Use
to score for Realistic Self-Appraisal (II)
17 + Use
to score for Positive Self-Concept (I)
18 + Use
to score for Availability of Strong Support (V)
19 Use to score for Leadership (VI), Community
Service (VII) and
Knowledge Acquired in a Field (VIII).
To score for Leadership, use options shown in item
5-A.
To score for Community Service, use options shown
item 5-B
To score for Knowledge Acquired in a Field, use
options shown in item 4-B.
* The higher the score, the more positive on the variable